One night with Venus, a lifetime with Mercury: Understanding syphilis and mercury treatment at St. Gertrude's infirmary (1382 - ca. 1611) in Kampen, the Netherlands

During the early modern period (1500-1800 CE), Europe was plagued by syphilis, a venereal infection caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum, resulting in chronic and debilitating symptoms. Desperate to resolve the infection, patients were often subjected to prolonged and extensive treatments with toxic mercury. Unfortunately, osteoarchaeological study of syphilis is challenging due to the limited skeletal visibility of the infection. Moreover, historical evidence is sparse and often influenced by sociocultural stigma attributed to the venereal nature of the disease. This scarcity of data on syphilis in the early modern period has limited more holistic research into the disease and its treatment. Therefore, this study adopted a multidisciplinary approach to investigate syphilis and its treatment at St. Gertrude’s infirmary (1382 - ca. 1611) in Kampen, the Netherlands, where presence of the disease has been previously reported. Human skeletal remains (n=79) were re-examined with a...Show moreDuring the early modern period (1500-1800 CE), Europe was plagued by syphilis, a venereal infection caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum, resulting in chronic and debilitating symptoms. Desperate to resolve the infection, patients were often subjected to prolonged and extensive treatments with toxic mercury. Unfortunately, osteoarchaeological study of syphilis is challenging due to the limited skeletal visibility of the infection. Moreover, historical evidence is sparse and often influenced by sociocultural stigma attributed to the venereal nature of the disease. This scarcity of data on syphilis in the early modern period has limited more holistic research into the disease and its treatment. Therefore, this study adopted a multidisciplinary approach to investigate syphilis and its treatment at St. Gertrude’s infirmary (1382 - ca. 1611) in Kampen, the Netherlands, where presence of the disease has been previously reported. Human skeletal remains (n=79) were re-examined with a focus on treponemal disease, following the scoring system laid out by Harper et al. (2011). The potential therapeutical use of mercury was investigated by conducting archival research and multiple trace elemental analyses. Using portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (pXRF) and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), subsamples of the skeletal assemblage were assessed on the presence of mercury in human bone. Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray (SEM-EDX) was conducted to assess the potential uptake of mercury in dental calculus on the teeth. Osteoarchaeological study identified several diagnostic cases of treponemal infection at the site (n=5 or 6.33%), as well as a number of cases with lesions suggestive of treponemal disease. This finding demonstrates the influence of treponemal disease, likely attributable to venereal syphilis, at St. Gertrude’s infirmary in Kampen, especially when compared to the prevalence of the disease in human skeletal assemblages from similar Dutch sites. Research into historical archives indicated that mercury was indeed used therapeutically in Kampen during the 18th century. However, it showed no direct evidence for syphilis or mercury treatment at St. Gertrude’s infirmary in the period of interest (1382 – ca. 1611). Unfortunately, elemental analyses revealed no substantial evidence for significantly elevated mercury concentrations, although interesting trends were found. In particular, both pXRF and SEM-EDX analyses did not result in absolute and quantifiable mercury concentrations. While ICP-MS analysis showed absolute concentrations of mercury in a subsample of bone material, interpreting and contextualising these results remains challenging. These observations may be explained by a lack of available mercury treatment in Kampen or a preference for other treatment methods. Nonetheless, this study helps to understand syphilis and its treatment in the early modern Netherlands and provides an evaluation of chemical analyses to detect mercury in archaeological bone.Show less

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One night with Venus, a lifetime with Mercury: Understanding syphilis and mercury treatment at St. Gertrude's infirmary (1382 - ca. 1611) in Kampen, the Netherlands