Embedded Statecraft: How Japan and South Korea Mobilise Smart Cities for Middle-Power Soft Power Projection

In an era of rapid digital transformation, smart cities have emerged as platforms for technological innovation and global influence, prompting debates in International Relations about the shifting locus of power between nation-states and urban networks. This thesis addresses the research question: How do nation-states use smart city initiatives to extend their influence and exercise soft power on the global stage? Drawing on Peter Evans’s (1995) concept of embedded autonomy, Alexander Vuving’s (2009) power currencies (brilliance, benignity, beauty), and Laura Roselle, Andrew Miskimmon, and Ben O’Loughlin’s (2014) strategic narratives, the study examines Japan and South Korea as democratic middle powers constrained in hard-power projection. Through qualitative analysis of English-language policy documents and promotional materials, it compares flagship initiatives: Japan’s Fujisawa Sustainable Smart Town and JASCA–Smart JAMP (ASEAN-focused), and South Korea’s Sejong National Pilot...Show moreIn an era of rapid digital transformation, smart cities have emerged as platforms for technological innovation and global influence, prompting debates in International Relations about the shifting locus of power between nation-states and urban networks. This thesis addresses the research question: How do nation-states use smart city initiatives to extend their influence and exercise soft power on the global stage? Drawing on Peter Evans’s (1995) concept of embedded autonomy, Alexander Vuving’s (2009) power currencies (brilliance, benignity, beauty), and Laura Roselle, Andrew Miskimmon, and Ben O’Loughlin’s (2014) strategic narratives, the study examines Japan and South Korea as democratic middle powers constrained in hard-power projection. Through qualitative analysis of English-language policy documents and promotional materials, it compares flagship initiatives: Japan’s Fujisawa Sustainable Smart Town and JASCA–Smart JAMP (ASEAN-focused), and South Korea’s Sejong National Pilot Smart City and K-City Network (global, with projects in approximately 49 countries by 2025). Findings reveal two distinct pathways of embedded statecraft. Japan employs a hierarchical-normative model, achieving deep regional normative integration through brilliance-dominant reassurance and mentorship narratives. South Korea adopts a permeable-relational approach, prioritising benignity and empathetic co-creation for broader global diffusion. Both demonstrate that smart cities are hybrid instruments reinforcing state sovereignty, bridging the “resurgent cities” and “resilient states” divide. The thesis extends developmental state theory to digital diplomacy, demonstrates mechanisms linking governance forms to dominant soft-power currencies, and theorizes empathetic co-creation as a resonant narrative mode. Implications highlight smart cities as versatile tools for middle-power influence in an urbanizing world.Show less

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Embedded Statecraft: How Japan and South Korea Mobilise Smart Cities for Middle-Power Soft Power Projection