Can Executive Functions Be trained?: Investigating the Impact of Age, Intervention Type and Setting on Efficacy

Executive functions (FFs) are essential for academic achievement and adaptive functioning throughout childhood and adolescence. Numerous interventions aim to improve EF, yet their overall effectiveness and the conditions under which they are most beneficial remain unclear. The current study conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of EF interventions in individuals aged 2-19 years and to examine whether intervention characteristics, such as types, setting and age, moderate intervention effectiveness. A total of 46 experimental and quasi-experimental studies were included in the primary analysis. Study-level effect sizes were aggregated using a random-effect model with inverse-variance weighting and restricted maximum likelihood estimation. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to asse the robustness of findings, and publication bias was examined using regression test ad the trim-and-fill procedure. The pooled effect size was small and not statistically significant, g =...Show moreExecutive functions (FFs) are essential for academic achievement and adaptive functioning throughout childhood and adolescence. Numerous interventions aim to improve EF, yet their overall effectiveness and the conditions under which they are most beneficial remain unclear. The current study conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of EF interventions in individuals aged 2-19 years and to examine whether intervention characteristics, such as types, setting and age, moderate intervention effectiveness. A total of 46 experimental and quasi-experimental studies were included in the primary analysis. Study-level effect sizes were aggregated using a random-effect model with inverse-variance weighting and restricted maximum likelihood estimation. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to asse the robustness of findings, and publication bias was examined using regression test ad the trim-and-fill procedure. The pooled effect size was small and not statistically significant, g = 0.103, 95% CI [-0.005, 0.211], p = 0.61. Heterogeneity was extremely high (I² = 94.2%), indicating substantial variability across studies. Egger’s regression test did not indicate significant publication bias (p= .333). However, the trim-and-fill procedure suggested the presence of missing studies and yielded a larger adjusted effect (g = 0.222), though the reliability of this estimate is uncertain given the high heterogeneity. Overall, the findings do ot provide evidence that EF interventions are effective in improving executive functioning in children and adolescents, nor that effectiveness differs by intervention type, age or setting. The substantial heterogeneity suggests that intervention effects may depend on factors not captured in the current analysis. Future research should focus on improving the standardization of EF outcomes measures used to assess intervention effectiveness across studies, and identifying conditions under which EF interventions may be beneficial.Show less

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Can Executive Functions Be trained? Investigating the Impact of Age, Intervention Type and Setting on Efficacy