Evidence of the Matronae can be found all over Europe, with various different names and interpretations, like the Matres, the Iunones and the Matrae. The amount of written sources pertaining to the...Show moreEvidence of the Matronae can be found all over Europe, with various different names and interpretations, like the Matres, the Iunones and the Matrae. The amount of written sources pertaining to the religious manifestations of the Nehalennia and Matronae altars of Germania Inferior is quite limited and encompasses a massive number of altars. Hundreds of these altars have often been found in older, often non-archaeological contexts and have the potential to reveal a lot of information concerning activities and people, but because of their original contexts, such as dredging projects, have not all lived up to that potential. Due to this combination of factors, there are not as many works written on the topic of the Nehalennia- and Matronae altars. With my research I want to use academic knowledge from recent years and modern views regarding religion at the Roman frontier to further investigate these altars as they deserve to be. Within my research I will be discussing both the Matronae and Nehalennia altars as they are so deeply intertwined that one must first understand the Matronae in order to be able to look at Nehalennia. However, the main focus of my research will ultimately be the Nehalennia altars, because the culture surrounding these altars is even less certain than that of the general Matronae.Show less
The Neolithic is a period where people went from living as hunter-gatherers to farmers. This change gave rise to animal husbandry. Many articles have looked into the development of animal husbandry...Show moreThe Neolithic is a period where people went from living as hunter-gatherers to farmers. This change gave rise to animal husbandry. Many articles have looked into the development of animal husbandry during the Neolithic within different regions, but the Netherlands region is lacking in research. This research investigates how animal husbandry developed in the Netherlands during the Neolithic while looking at the relative abundancy of livestock, culling practices, and the purposes for keeping livestock. The livestock species which are investigated are cattle, pig, sheep, and goat. To investigate this development, three case studies are used: Medel-De Roeskamp, Schipluiden-Harnaschpolder, and Mienakker. Each of these case studies belongs to a different period in the Neolithic. NISP and age-at-death determination methods are used for determining relative abundancy and culling practices respectively. A combination of age-at death and pathologies is used in order to determine for which purposed livestock was kept. The used age-at-death determination methods are epiphyseal fusion, tooth eruption, and tooth wear. The results show that while the relative abundancy grew for cattle, it decreased for pig, sheep, and goat. The culling practices stayed the same for each species, most of the cattle being killed before becoming three years old and pig, sheep, and goat of all ages was slaughtered. During the Early and Middle Neolithic, cattle was kept for their meat and milk and pigs were kept for their meat. This changed in the Late Neolithic as now cattle was kept only for their meat and pigs were no longer kept for their meat. Not enough sheep and goat remains were found to determine why sheep and goat were kept. This research concludes that while animal husbandry in the Netherlands during the Neolithic did develop in some ways, relative abundancy, it did not have much development in other parts, culling practices and purposes for keeping livestock.Show less
A collection of hardstone/basalt artefacts from the celt-making industry was gathered from excavations at the Postclassic pre-Columbian sites of La Tigüilotada and Gualorita on El Tigre Island in...Show moreA collection of hardstone/basalt artefacts from the celt-making industry was gathered from excavations at the Postclassic pre-Columbian sites of La Tigüilotada and Gualorita on El Tigre Island in the Gulf of Fonseca. In an attempt to understand the poorly researched basalt industry in the pre-historic Gulf of Fonseca, the artefacts were analysed to determine if La Tigüilotada and Gualorita procured basalt from singular or multiple sources. A literature review was conducted to understand the use, procurement, circulation, and exchange of basalt tools and raw materials throughout Mesoamerica; it was determined that all sites used advanced trade routes to acquire basalt from multiple local and non-local sources. From the Early Formative period to the Historic period, substantial basalt industries with complex exchange networks existed throughout Mesoamerica. All objects (n=115) were inventoried, classified, and macroscopically examined for variations in their matrix; potential rock species were identified in the macroscopic analysis with the intent to be verified by the XRF results. In the classification chapter, the artefacts were classified into 7 categories of artefact types and 11 visually distinct matrices. This project aimed to determine the validity of using XRF to analyse basalts and distinguish different provenances. One object from each context (n=44) was tested using pXRF analysis to gather the bulk compositions of the artefacts in the assemblage; the XRF results were made into a database. The XRF results were interpreted by implementing the data into bivariate plots to examine potential provenance clusters. Elements Mg, Al, Si, Ti, Fe, K, Ca, Sr, Y, and Zr were plotted against each other to identify group variations. The XRF analysis could not accurately record light elements Mg, Al, and Si and was consequently unable to verify the species determinations from the macroscopic analysis. However, XRF analysis successfully established three main provenances in addition to 9 outliers that were also interpreted as unique provenances. The majority of the assemblage consisted of a fine-grained blue-grey stone; the three main provenance groups and two outliers were completely comprised of this matrix type, suggesting five unique provenances for this type of material. All completed celts were foreign to El Tigre; one provenance group was comprised solely of completed celts. The other two groups exhibited no completed celts but were made of many celt production implements with similar chemical compositions; these materials were noted to likely be local to El Tigre. La Tigüilotada was determined to be a preform production site and part of a wider network of basalt exchange which should now be studied. Gualorita’s basalt industry is connected to La Tigüilotada but remains uninterpreted. This project offers an opportunity for future studies to identify the species of rock and the true sources of these artefacts.Show less
In 2019, the skeletal remains of over fifty individuals were excavated in Koudekerke, Zeeland, the Netherlands. These individuals were buried at a former cemetery around the Michaëlskerk (Michael’s...Show moreIn 2019, the skeletal remains of over fifty individuals were excavated in Koudekerke, Zeeland, the Netherlands. These individuals were buried at a former cemetery around the Michaëlskerk (Michael’s Church) which was in use for several centuries during the Late and post-Medieval period, in approximately four burial phases. In order to gain a better understanding of the lives of these individuals, this thesis attempts to reconstruct the diet of the Koudekerke population using stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis. Nine individuals have been selected for analysis of both dentine and bone collagen. Of all nine, two different molar samples and one bone sample have been collected. Because these tissues form during different life phases, the protein intake in childhood, adolescence and adulthood can be compared to gain insight into diet shifts over the life course of each individual. Additionally, overall diet between the four burial phases is also compared to investigate dietary changes within the population throughout the centuries. Previous research into contemporaneous diet in countries around the North Sea has shown that while diet predominantly remained based on terrestrial C3 sources, the contribution of marine fish increased over time with the widespread trade in predominantly cod products. In England, this process is theorised to have occurred quite quickly and suddenly starting around the year 1000 CE. This phenomenon is known as the ‘fish event horizon’. The results from Koudekerke are compared with those of other studies on a local (Domburg, Klaaskinderkerke and Vlissingen), regional (Slijpe, Koksijde, Alkmaar, Blokhuizen, Arnhem, Eindhoven and Zwolle) and international (Ipswich, Auldhame and Ribe) scale to better contextualise the findings. Comparison focuses on contemporaneous coastal sites around the North Sea, as well as a broader comparison within the Netherlands. This thesis shows that the protein intake at Koudekerke was at all times mostly derived from terrestrial C3 food, including plant sources such as cereals, vegetables and fruit, and herbivore and omnivore sources like dairy, mutton, eggs, pork and chicken. One individual from the first burial phase has significantly lower δ15N values than the rest of the group, which means this person relied more on plant protein and herbivore products than the others, who regularly consumed animal protein of a higher trophic level. Five individuals have higher stable nitrogen isotope ratios than would be expected from a purely terrestrial diet. These individuals therefore may regularly have eaten marine food. This is most convincingly the case for one of them, as this individual has both elevated δ15N and δ13C values. Freshwater fish consumption is also possible, as three individuals have at least one dentine sample that is high in 15N but low in 13C. Overall, the group exhibits an elevation in δ15N values over the four burial phases (with the highest values in phase 3 and the lowest in phase 1), which could indicate a rise in marine food consumption. However, comparison to Early Medieval Domburg does not reveal a sudden ‘fish event horizon’ as has been suggested for England. Alternative explanations for increasing δ15N are supplementing feed of terrestrial omnivores with seafood, intensification of manuring and/or an increase in freshwater fish consumption. There is no strong evidence for personal shifts in diet over individual lifetimes, but some tentative exceptions may exist. Comparison of Koudekerke to other contemporaneous sites shows that within the Netherlands, the Koudekerke population likely consumed more seafood than was average. It also shows a divide in isotope values between the two Belgian sites and the Dutch ones, as the Belgian sites have higher δ13C but lower δ15N values. Generally, an increase in δ15N likely linked to marine consumption over time can be seen at the sites used for comparison.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
This thesis explores the application of Deep Learning techniques for automated feature detection within GIS maps in the context of digital archaeology. Specifically, it focuses on leveraging the...Show moreThis thesis explores the application of Deep Learning techniques for automated feature detection within GIS maps in the context of digital archaeology. Specifically, it focuses on leveraging the YOLOv8s algorithm to automate the detection of prehistoric granaries on archaeological excavation maps. Traditional manual analysis methods in archaeological research are often time-consuming and labour-intensive, particularly when dealing with large spatial datasets. Moreover, the overall convoluted nature of archaeological excavations and the diverse range of features they contain present significant challenges for traditional methods. To address these challenges, this research investigates the potential of Deep Learning algorithms to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of automated feature detection on archaeological GIS maps. The results of this study demonstrate the effectiveness and potential of Deep Learning algorithms to accurately identify prehistoric granaries within archaeological excavation maps. The analysis reveals that the algorithm is able to detect and classify prehistoric granaries with a relative high degree of precision. Despite these promising results, the study underscores the challenges associated with the opacity of DL models, particularly regarding their interpretability and biases. The thesis highlights the importance of addressing issues such as data imbalance, background noise, and the inclusion of contextual information to improve the accuracy and reliability of automated detection models. While the current model demonstrates potential, further research is needed to refine these methodologies, ensuring they contribute meaningfully to archaeological analysis. This work tries to lay some foundation for future advancements in the field, advocating for the development of more comprehensive DL models that can enhance the efficiency and depth of archaeological investigations.Show less
The mid-third millennium BCE marks the first major globalization episode in the Eastern Mediterranean, during which Cyprus underwent a cultural transformation that resulted in the advent of the...Show moreThe mid-third millennium BCE marks the first major globalization episode in the Eastern Mediterranean, during which Cyprus underwent a cultural transformation that resulted in the advent of the Cypriot Bronze Age. The transitional period between the Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age is known as the Philia period and is defined by changes associated with connectivity with the mainland. Among these changes is an upheaval in mortuary practices characterized by extramural cemeteries composed of rock-cut chamber tombs featuring multiple internments and metal-rich grave good assemblages. This study contextualizes these changes in mortuary practice with inter-regional mortuary trends on the mainland by systematically comparing burial types between Cyprus and West, Central, and Southeast Anatolia and Northern Syria. Through comparing inter-regional burial type variability, this study distinguishes between which aspects of Philia period mortuary practice relate to mainland connectivity, and which reflect continuities with the Chalcolithic. This study’s results demonstrate Philia period burial types are generally dissimilar to Anatolia, instead Cypriot mortuary practices compare on a modular level to the mainland, featuring a unique combination of local continuities and novel innovations related to connectivity, constituting a hybridized mortuary program.Show less
This thesis investigates the objectscape of ancient Lattara to uncover the impact of Mediterranean influences—manifested through imported objects and goods—on this Iron Age village between the 6th...Show moreThis thesis investigates the objectscape of ancient Lattara to uncover the impact of Mediterranean influences—manifested through imported objects and goods—on this Iron Age village between the 6th and 2nd centuries BCE. Lattara was an indigenous port city founded around 525 BCE, located on the Mediterranean coast of Gaul between larger Greek trading colonies such as Massalia to the northeast and Emporion to the south. It’s position on popular contemporary trade networks saw countless new Mediterranean objects pass through its harbour. For this research, an objectscape analysis is applied to investigate the influence objects have on human behaviour through their material and stylistic characteristics, namely the active role they take in shaping human life and social practices. The choice of an objectscape analysis is central to this research, as it prioritizes the agency of objects in historical processes. The analysis is conducted between four key categories of imported objects found during archaeological excavations at Lattara, being ceramics, epigraphical evidence (engravings and inscriptions in material culture), lighting (oil lamps and hearths), and numismatics. For each category, four essential and practical questions which fall under the objectscape methodology were put forward: What objects, styles and materialities are new? Where do they come from? How do they innovate? What are the historical consequences of these material changes? Through these questions, the local consequences of globally exchanged goods became evident. The study reveals significant changes in daily life and social structures. Evidence suggests that an increase in imported objects contributed to a gradual shift from a traditionally communal society, characterized by collective rituals such as communal feasting, communal construction projects and shared resources, toward a more individualistic and private lifestyle of Lattara’s inhabitants. Examples include the engravings of indigenous names using the Greek alphabet on imported tableware, indicative of personal ownership; silver hoards of Massalian obols, reflecting the emergence of concepts of wealth accumulation, and secrecy by means of concealed said wealth; and the adoption of oil lamps, which had had influence on the communal significance of the central hearth, and the shared rituals associated with it by facilitating private activities after dark. These findings illustrate how increased connectivity with Mediterranean cultures not only transformed material practices but also reshaped the social fabric of Lattara. This research contributes to broader discussions on the interplay between trade, material culture, and societal change in the ancient Mediterranean, and illustrated the lasting effects of cross-cultural exchanges on indigenous societies bordering the Mediterranean sea.Show less
Sex/gender is a topic that is on the rise, also in archaeology. However, research into the topic can be used politically, therefore researchers must be conscious about potentially pushing...Show moreSex/gender is a topic that is on the rise, also in archaeology. However, research into the topic can be used politically, therefore researchers must be conscious about potentially pushing problematic rhetoric in their discourse. In this thesis, it is analyzed how gender theory has become integrated into archaeological research about sex/gender in the 3rd millennium BCE Europe of the past 10. Furthermore, handholds are provided to bridge the gap between gender theory and archaeological research through suggestions based on the points where archaeology struggles to integrate gender theory. In gender theory, the general discourse has placed the origins of the modern gender system in the 17th century Enlightenment period. It is from this period that the colonial conception of European sex/gender starts to develop, which is also exported around the world, becoming caught up in a network of oppression. Furthermore, in the Enlightenment period, sex/gender also becomes a part of science. This entanglement with science creates the cycle between science and society, wherein science reinforces societal ideas about sex/gender, thus legitimizing it as a natural, inherent, ahistorical category. This can also be observed in archaeology, wherein 19th century ideas of osteological remains and grave goods still circulate in the discourse. Currently there is push back against such narratives originating from second wave feminism that birthed gender theory as an academic field. The 3rd millennium BCE Europe is chosen as case study for this thesis, due to the perceived start of binary and strict gender divisions in this area and period. This interpretation is based on the burial ritual of three Single Grave Burial cultures (Yamnaya, CWC and BB) as well as the settlement patterns that are observed; a patrilocal society with female exogamy and a male warrior elite. Through a meta-study it is observed that archaeological sex/gender research has not yet incorporated gender theory in many instances. Furthermore, deterministic and binary narratives are often perpetuated and sex/gender determination often hinges solely on osteological remains. Overall, biases are also present in around 34.7% to 46.9% of the 98 publications. When converting to a numerical assessment, it can be stated that archaeological sex/gender research is not integrating gender theory and thus subpar in quality. It can also be stated that the state of archaeological sex/gender research has remained mostly stagnant over the past 10 years, especially outside the gender archaeology specialization. As a result, archaeological sex/gender research currently feeds into the cycle between science and society that has preconceived notions of how people act based on their sex/gender category, while those categories themselves are thought to be inherent and ahistorical. Suggestions are done for future research are made in relation to areas that result in interpretations not properly grounded in gender theory discourse; namely biological sex, biases that are expected thus found, and the records that are cited. The suggestions that are proposed are an intersectional approach, a more cautious use of language, the exploration of alternative interpretations, an awareness of biases and assumptions in the modern gender system, a caution when citing colonial and post-colonial records and other archaeologists, as well as an acknowledgment of the limits of the archaeological record that allows for space for multiple interpretations of the same data. Furthermore, archaeologists are requested to put in work in decolonizing their own work, without which the discourse will not change.Show less
Hunter-gatherer research in south Africa has seen a steady output of research and provided important information on all aspects of hunter-gatherer communities. Faunal remains at sites provide one...Show moreHunter-gatherer research in south Africa has seen a steady output of research and provided important information on all aspects of hunter-gatherer communities. Faunal remains at sites provide one of the most common sources of data and have led to plenty of analyses on huntergatherer subsistence strategy. The role of megafauna in subsistence strategies in southern Africa has been sparsely researched, especially during the Later Stone Age (LSA). While megafauna could provide an ideal source of meat and fat, their contribution to the hunter-gatherer subsistence during the LSA has not been researched. This was the main focus of the research for this thesis, with a focus on the elephant as a case study due to the comparable extensive research into this megafauna species. Megafauna assemblage data was compiled and analysed, together with a short list of rock art featuring megafauna. The fauna remains were analysed for their relative contribution to the overall assemblage in terms of bone representation and caloric contribution. The remains and the rock art were also analysed on compared to determine any geographical and temporal distribution patterns. Multiple theories ranging from ontology to the dangerous nature of megafauna species were examined as possible causes for the patterns that emerged. The results show that the relative importance of megafauna based on skeletal element representation is not that large compared to the possible nutritional contribution such large herbivores could provide. In terms of distribution, the megafauna shows no discernible patterns on the temporal plane due to the small size of the dataset. The geographic distribution shows a link between historical biome presence and archaeological remains. The rock art distribution aligns more closely with the biome presence data than the actual faunal remains of megafauna. While several different theories are proposed to explain the patterns observed in the faunal assemblages and rock art, the data is simply too insufficient to make any definitive inferences on the cause behind these patterns. Future research to provide a clearer picture of megafauna distribution and their possible causes would need to broaden the dataset provided in this thesis and provide more detailed information on the bone elements in the assemblages.Show less
