This research attempted to answer the following question: ‘What was the function of the Mesolithic small (<88,5mm) barbed bone points from the North Sea and what does this contribute to our...Show moreThis research attempted to answer the following question: ‘What was the function of the Mesolithic small (<88,5mm) barbed bone points from the North Sea and what does this contribute to our understanding of subsistence strategies of the inhabitants of the North Sea Basin?’ In order to answer this question an assemblage of 28 archaeological small barbed bone points – that originate from the North Sea in front of the Dutch coast of Zuid-Holland – was studied. This thesis started in chapter 1 with an outline of research that was already conducted on these points by Verhart (1986; 1988; 2000) Tsiopelas (2010) and Spithoven (2016). Thereafter, it was explained in chapter 2 how the research was conducted: literature research, experimental archaeology and use wear analysis. In chapter 3, it was outlined how these points fit within the archaeological context: Mesolithic Doggerland. The shooting experiment conducted for this research was discussed in chapter 4 and in chapter 5 the results of this experiment were compared with the results of the use wear analysis. The use wear analysis was conducted on 28 archaeological points in comparison to six experimental points from the shooting experiment. In chapter 6, the social factors which could have influenced the life history of the points were discussed, as well as their function and the representativeness of this research. In the concluding chapter of this thesis (7) the research question was answered followed by a review of the used methods and suggestions for future research. The function of the small barbed bone points from Mesolithic Doggerland could be inferred from the use wear analysis. The points are all (heavily) curated weapon tips. They have developed a high degree of wear and about half of the studied points have remains of reworked barbs present as well. The research area is only a small area of Mesolithic Doggerland which already yielded about 800 of these small barbed bone/antler points. The curation of these points, the function as weapon tips and the overrepresentation within the archaeological record of Mesolithic Doggerland suggests that these weapons were used very frequently. Therefore, it can be inferred that hunting was one an important subsistence strategy. The most used hunting weapon could have been the bow and arrow because the small points are interpreted as arrowheads. However, the use wear analysis could not confirm that the points were specifically used as arrowheads.Show less
In this research, I wanted to personally test whether Rots (2010) extensive experimental research could aid my interpretation of hafting traces on a sample of artefacts from several Vlaardingen...Show moreIn this research, I wanted to personally test whether Rots (2010) extensive experimental research could aid my interpretation of hafting traces on a sample of artefacts from several Vlaardingen Group sites (Leidschendam, Voorschoten and Vlaardingen) (3400-2900 BC). This sample is particularly interesting to study, because it allows me to test the assumption that these small, flint scrapers must have been used hafted, because of their small size. Whilst testing a methodology against a seemingly common-sense assumption, the wider implications of hafting evidence for the interpretation of settlement function have not been forgotten. Unfortunately, certain processes, common in the life of an archaeological scraper, such as post depositional surface modification (PDSM) and resharpening episodes, have obscured the patterns of microwear traces which were more obvious on Rots’ experimental tools. My own experiments with replica hafted tools did, to some extent, elucidate the kinds of hafting traces that might occur on such tools, but for the scrapers from Leidschendam, PDSM often rendered the scrapers uninterpretable. Nevertheless, traces which could be interpreted as hafting traces were observed on some of these small scrapers! Microwear polishes suggesting at least two different haft materials, as well as some hafting-related edge damage and even spots of potential adhesive residues were recorded. This suggested at least 14 out 46 may have been hafted. For a few scrapers, the pattern of microwear traces was even sufficient to suggest a more detailed interpretation of the hafting arrangement. Furthermore, a couple of potential, hafting-related patterns emerged with differences in the incidence of hafting on different sites, and hafted scrapers having a subtly different morphology to non-hafted scrapers. The implications of these insights are then explored in the relation to the debate about the permanency of settlement at certain Vlaardingen sites. Although further hafting wear analysis of material from other Vlaardingen sites would also be useful in this discussion. Ultimately, the methodology proposed by Rots is found to be less applicable to the material studied than I had hoped and extra challenges for interpreting heavily retouched, archaeological tools are outlined.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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During the Bronze Age (BA), in the Southern Netherlands, swords have been systematically surrendered into main rivers for hundreds of years while they are completely absent in coeval burials. Such...Show moreDuring the Bronze Age (BA), in the Southern Netherlands, swords have been systematically surrendered into main rivers for hundreds of years while they are completely absent in coeval burials. Such a sharp pattern was extensively used as a platform to develop hypotheses on the social organization of the communities that performed the rite both at regional and at European level. Being a warrior is considered to have been a threat for the social cohesion of the small and egalitarian BA communities of the Low Countries: therefore, warriorhood must have been a temporary identity which was ‘worn’ when necessary, and then dismissed through the ritual deposition of certain martial paraphernalia (the swords). However, the above-mentioned model does not explain entirely why not all the swords in circulation, but only a few specimens (roughly one every 10 years), were deposited. In order to better understand the selection mechanics, I propose to analyze the possible value-giving events in which these selected items might have been through. Given the nature of the objects, combat constitutes a probable factor governing the selection of these tools for deposition. This thesis aims to illustrate a methodology for the investigation of combat practices, as well as to propose an interpretative framework suitable for gaining insights about socio-cultural aspects drawing upon data on objects’use. Through a combined approach which envisaged an experimental investigation of combat that conciliates realism and control over the variables, and an in-depth analysis of usewear traces on ancient specimens, it was possible to assess the use in combat of archaeological swords. The presence of fresh combat marks together with possible signs of ancient repairs on the swords analyzed suggests that swords have been through more than one cycles of use before being deposited. Furthermore, the incidence and the type of combat traces documented on the archaeological swords analyzed support the thesis of a skillful use of these objects in the past. By interpreting the data through a framework based on practice theory and the related conception of value-through-action, it has been possible to gain alternative perspectives on the phenomenon of deposition and on the social identity of the warrior. Drawing upon the evidence of skillful and continued use of the deposited swords, a multidisciplinary exploration of warriorhood as a practice resulted in a more fixed and socially-structuring picture of this social identity than the one proposed by previous literature providing points of discussion which question the current discourses regarding European Bronze Age society.Show less
A significant step in the history of society was the onset of metallurgy. It is however unclear when metal first started to be used as a standard, functional material in prehistory. Much of the...Show moreA significant step in the history of society was the onset of metallurgy. It is however unclear when metal first started to be used as a standard, functional material in prehistory. Much of the earliest evidence of metal artefacts within the archaeological record was deposited in a potentially ritual context, which suggests that the origin of the use of the metal as a functional material cannot be based on the presence of metal objects within the archaeological record. The deposition of supposedly ritual objects in the past does provide evidence for the presence of metal as a material, however this does not necessarily correlate to the presence of everyday, working metal objects and tools. While stone tools could have been immediately discarded once they are broken and so their stratigraphic placement in the archaeological record can be approximately correlated with the date that they were used in the past, metal tools can be re- melted and so recycled over a much longer period of time. It could therefore be argued that he earliest stratigraphic location of metal tools in the soil does not necessarily correlate with their time of origin in prehistory. In order to address this problem, many studies have instead studied the presence of metal indirectly, by investigating the microwear traces left by different tool materials in order to determine whether certain traces can be considered characteristic of metal tool use. These studies have ranged from an examination of cut marks in butchered bones to an investigation of drilling technology during bead production. The present study used experimental archaeology complemented by microwear analysis to investigate traces left by stone, antler, and metal tools during the production of amber beads, focusing particularly on the cutting and drilling stages of bead production. From an analysis of the experimentally produced pieces, it was then possible to create a list of distinguishing features for each tool material. This list of distinguishing features was then compared to those traces identified on archaeological collections from three sites in the northern Netherlands: the Late Neolithic settlement site at Kolhorn, a coffin burial in a tumulus at Emmerdennen, and grave goods from several tumuli at Hijken Hooghalen. The results demonstrated that it is possible to identify which tool material had been used to create the archaeological pieces, and thus potentially contribute towards existing studies in microwear analysis of tool traces, and potentially also further towards detecting the onset of metal as a functional material in prehistory.Show less
Százhalombatta-Földvár, located in Central Hungary, is a Bronze Age tell-settlement along the Danube River, at the delta of the Benta river. The Bronze Age in Hungary is the period between 2800...Show moreSzázhalombatta-Földvár, located in Central Hungary, is a Bronze Age tell-settlement along the Danube River, at the delta of the Benta river. The Bronze Age in Hungary is the period between 2800-2700 BC and 800 BC (Kiss 2005), from which Százhalombatta represents 2000-1400 BC (Vicze 2013). This archaeological site has an important role in the Bronze Age research in Hungary – and abroad. Due to its size and geographical position, Százhalombatta-Földvár can be considered the head of the Bronze Age chiefdom in the Benta valley, according to the model proposed by Earle and Kristiansen (2010). However, detailed research of the site itself is challenging this view. Comparisons of the material culture with other site-types show little indications of a difference in social hierarchy within each site. Hence, instead of political differences, they might be economical. The present study aims to give additional information for the interpretation of the site through microwear analysis of sickle inserts. Microwear analysis is not yet an established approach in Hungary, making the present research a pioneer and offering a fully new approach to understanding the site. In the research presented here, a sample of sickle blades has been analysed, coming from the last occupation layer of the tell, the Koszider Phase (1500-1400 BC) (Vicze 2013). Sickle blades are the most common flint tools found on the site, which underlines their importance in the daily life and society. In order to properly introduce this new method into the current research, it was essential to conduct experiments as references, because the archaeological microwear traces have to be compared with traces on experimental tools. As such, harvesting with experimental flint flakes was carried out. The experiments focused on the difference between 148 Abstract harvesting methods and cereal types. Furthermore, the archaeological tools were also compared to literature and the experimental reference collection of the faculty of archaeology. The microwear analysis strengthens the interpretation that the sickle blades had been used to harvest cereals and that they were used for a long time and regularly maintained. Unfortunately, the experiments did not yield the hoped-for differentiating information, while the archaeological tools do show a greater variability. As a result, it is not possible to draw conclusions about the harvesting method or harvested cereal species at this stage of the research. Nevertheless, it was possible to give some interpretation about social organisation. From the microwear analysis it can be suggested that sickles were important tools and that the harvest might have been organised and centralised by Százhalombatta-Földvár in the chiefdom of the Benta valley.Show less
This thesis focusses mainly on Neolithic ornaments made of jet and seeks to interpret these finds by addressing two objectives. The first objective of this thesis is concerned with characterizing...Show moreThis thesis focusses mainly on Neolithic ornaments made of jet and seeks to interpret these finds by addressing two objectives. The first objective of this thesis is concerned with characterizing the black shiny ornaments of Schipluiden and Ypenburg which have preliminarily been termed jets and to further investigate the possibilities of provenance studies for Dutch Neolithic jet ornaments with the use of XRF. The second objective of this thesis is to investigate the possibility of distinguishing between an intentional polish and use-wear related shine on the basis of macroscopic analysis. For this purpose a series of experiments has been designed involving experimentally made ornamental beads and a rock tumbler. An XRF distinction shows that the finished ornaments of Ypenburg are possibly all true Upper Lias jets. A large amount of the objects under investigation are probably not, however, including all finished ornaments from Schipluiden. It has proven possible to distinguish between an intentional polish and a use-wear related shine. This experiment, although insightful, is incomplete as it lacks the evidence to conclusively distinguish an intentional polish from a use-wear related shine. Similar experiments could be set up for future research with longer tumbling durations and allow the use of different polish materials.Show less
Central to this study are the osseous artefacts of the Merovingian site of Oegstgeest Nieuw Rhijngeest-Zuid. It is one of the rare microwear studies focusing on bone and antler artefacts from a...Show moreCentral to this study are the osseous artefacts of the Merovingian site of Oegstgeest Nieuw Rhijngeest-Zuid. It is one of the rare microwear studies focusing on bone and antler artefacts from a Dutch Medieval context. The sixty-one bone and antler artefacts were recovered between 2009 and 2012. The material consisted of the following (morphological) categories: two-pointed bone rods, pointed bones, hemispherical objects, long bones, irregular bones with holes, worked antler, small pieces of worked bone and antler, combs and pins. Some unfinished artefacts and waste was also found. The artefacts were subjected to both archaeozoological and microwear analyses. One of the aims was to bring into view the organisation and production of the osseous artefacts. The raw material was selected on the basis of the natural shape, weight and other properties like flexibility. Antler was relatively flexible and often used for the production of composite combs. With regard to the local production, it is likely that most bone objects were produced by the user when needed. While most bone objects probably derived from a household production, antler artefacts (mainly composite combs) would have been purchased or traded with travelling craftsmen or merchants. This study also examined to what degree the various artefact forms were function specific. The osseous tools can be linked to different activities, various contact materials and involve different directions of motion and activity zones. Especially pins and two-pointed bone rods appeared to have been used in several crafts or were reused or multifunctional. Finally, it was investigated in which (craft) activities the osseous artefacts were involved, and what they revealed about the role of Oegstgeest within the Early Medieval region of the Old Rhine. The osseous artefact assemblage could be connected to several activities and common spheres: transport, leisure activities, personal utensils, symbolic or ritual activities and craft activities. There are no indications that the production of osseous artefacts, nor the craft activities in which they were involved, transcended the needs of the local inhabitants. Based on the study of the osseous artefacts, a regional function within the former region of the Old Rhine in the domain of crafts and/or raw material is not implied.Show less
By seeking aspects other than symbolism from the archaeological record to recognise fully modern behaviour, further insight can be obtained about human cognition during the Middle Palaeolithic (MP)...Show moreBy seeking aspects other than symbolism from the archaeological record to recognise fully modern behaviour, further insight can be obtained about human cognition during the Middle Palaeolithic (MP) and Middle Stone Age (MSA). Ochre, and possibly beeswax or fat, is believed to have been purposefully used to physically alter the performance of adhesives, and is seen as some of the best evidence of advanced cognition outside of the use of symbolism. However, it is currently unclear how efficient different adhesive recipes are, how much specific ingredients influence the performance, and how difficult it may have been for those ingredients to be combined to maximum effect. I conducted a series of laboratory based lap shear and impact tests, following modern adhesive testing standards, in order to determine the effects of specific ingredients and ingredient ratios. I focused on resin, as it is the only chemically identified MSA adhesive, but also included tar because of its presence in the MP, and gum in order to compare my results with previously conducted experiments. Additives tested include different proportions of ochre and beeswax with resin and gum, and charcoal with tar. Standardised tests have proven to be a fast and accurate method of comparing prehistoric adhesives, and have shown scope for potential performance testing in different simulated environmental conditions, and of different haft types. My results further support the hypothesis that high levels of skill and knowledge were required by early modern humans to consistently produce the most effective compound adhesives.Show less
Many hundreds of brooches from the early medieval period have been recovered by metal detector enthusiasts since the hobby became popular in the 1970's. Much typological work has been completed and...Show moreMany hundreds of brooches from the early medieval period have been recovered by metal detector enthusiasts since the hobby became popular in the 1970's. Much typological work has been completed and some compositional research has already been undertaken for those found in Greater Frisia but not on a large scale. This research undertook the bulk analysis of over 600 copper alloy brooches by handheld XRF and onsite use-wear analysis at repositories in the north of Holland. The compositional analysis subsequently showed regional and chronological differences in the bulk elements as well as clear correlations to typological groups. The analysis produced evidence that Greater Frisia abandoned its tradition of producing brooches in bronze, in favour of production in brass shortly after being annexed into the Carolingian empire in the 8th Century. The morphological analysis also produced evidence of recycling practices and a new interpretation for some cross motifs. These castaways, while lacking the most basic stratigraphical contexts and frequently marginalized in archaeological research, have much more to offer than previously thought.Show less
The Bandkeramik culture came to the Netherlands as a complete package. This new culture settled itself at the Graetheide plateau in the south of the Netherlands on the fertile loess grounds. Geleen...Show moreThe Bandkeramik culture came to the Netherlands as a complete package. This new culture settled itself at the Graetheide plateau in the south of the Netherlands on the fertile loess grounds. Geleen-Janskamperveld is one of these Bandkeramik settlements. All aspects of the Bandkeramik culture are very similar between the different settlements so models are very suitable to analyzee the Bandkeramik culture. One of these aspects which has different models, is the settlement structure. The Hofplatz model is used for centuries as the main model for the Bandkeramik culture. Within this model clusters of houses represent successive houses and thus continuity on a single location. There is still some disagreement whether one or several houses were in use at one time within such a cluster. Rück proposed a different model in which the settlement is structured along lines. He also proposed a different reconstruction of the houses and he assumes a longer use-life for the individual houses: up till a 100 years instead of the 25 years which is used most. Within this research a use-wear study of the flint artefacts found at Geleen-Janskamperveld is executed with the hope of finding some specialization between different houses. This information could help with finding which of these models is best suitable for this excavation. Some use-wear study was already done in the past. The results of the previous study are used for this new research. The predominant contact material found at Geleen-Janskamperveld is hide, followed by cereal harvesting tools. This is in line with other Bandkeramik sites in the Netherlands which were studied in the same way. Other contact materials like wood, reed, bark, meat, bone, clay, mineral materials and the mysterious contact materials which produces ‘polish 10’ and ‘polish 23’ were also recognised. Unfortunately no real specialization was found between the different houses of Geleen-Janskamperveld. The rest of the analysis therefore is based on the literature. Rück proposed new models for different aspects of the settlement. He argues that houses were built on poles instead of on the ground. His main argument, steep slopes on which the houses were built in Bandkeramik times, is not valid for the Dutch LBK. His argument about the duration of a house generation is more plausible. The old arguments for a house generation are a bit outdated. Houses probably would have last longer. A visual analysis is executed to find possible settlement structures at Geleen-Janskamperveld. This resulted in several maps which clearly show that the model of Rück is not plausible for this excavation. No real alignments are apparent. A model in which clusters of several houses success each other is more plausible. This is supported by other features such as ditches.Show less
