Violent extremism has impacted Pakistan since its establishment in 1947. However since 2014, a rise of extremism can be highlighted due to an increase of attacks on civilians. As a response, the...Show moreViolent extremism has impacted Pakistan since its establishment in 1947. However since 2014, a rise of extremism can be highlighted due to an increase of attacks on civilians. As a response, the Pakistani government has shifted the focus away from using violence, to formulating various policy documents. Current academic literature is non-western and solely uses policy documents to analyse CVE. Through a discourse analysis, this paper uses interviews with former and current senior officials, and Pakistani policy documents to analyse overarching themes and differences on the evolution of CVE policies. Accordingly, the research question that this paper seeks to answer is: ‘What is the evolution of Pakistan’s counter-violent extremism policies and how has this affected the country's approach to addressing the threat of extremism?’ The findings indicate that there has been no real revolution since the formulation of the first policy document as they all resemble each other, and that there has been a lack of implementation. Moreover, interviews revealed that extremism is deeply engrained within its society due to the strong link between religion and governmental institutions. These challenges explain the difficulties that hinder the country’s CVE efforts. Limitation of this study includes the sample size and the online setting of the interviews, therefore future research should conduct increase the amount of interviews on the ground.Show less
This thesis examines the differences between the way in which religious extremism, violent extremism, and terrorism are conceptualised in counter-extremism policy in the Netherlands and the United...Show moreThis thesis examines the differences between the way in which religious extremism, violent extremism, and terrorism are conceptualised in counter-extremism policy in the Netherlands and the United States. The findings of this research are built upon a comparative qualitative content study. All content used for finding evidence are Dutch and US counter extremism public policy documents. In total 33 documents were analysed, 18 of them are Dutch policy documents and 15 of them are US policy documents. Based on these sources, this thesis found that religious extremism, violent extremism, and terrorism are conceptualised differently in Dutch and US counter-extremism policy. In Dutch counter-extremism policy, the conceptualisations stem from the securitisation of Islam as a religion. This leads to the fact that in the Dutch policy documents only Islam is mentioned as a religion that can become extreme, violently extreme and or bring forth terrorists. In contrast, this study found that in the US, religious extremism, religious violent extremism, and or terrorism are concepts that fall within a larger category named: Racially or Ethnically Motivated Extremism. Within this category, religion is discussed but unlike Dutch documents, no religion is mentioned specifically in the contextual conceptualization of religious extremism, violent extremism, and terrorism. An explainable reason for this is that certain religions such as the Islam might be less securitized in the US than in the Netherlands.Show less
This study is on the effectiveness of three different P/CVE practices in Germany on Neo-Nazi movements from 1990. This study applies an adapted theoretical framework to this topic. The theoretical...Show moreThis study is on the effectiveness of three different P/CVE practices in Germany on Neo-Nazi movements from 1990. This study applies an adapted theoretical framework to this topic. The theoretical framework bases effectiveness on (1) appropriateness, (2) impact, and (3) sustainability. The answers to the question of effectiveness were previously unclear as they were based on different indicators. By applying this framework to make a codebook for a qualitative content analysis of several different types of documents, a threefold answer was found. Firstly, the adaptations of the German Criminal Code are effective. Secondly, the policy on limiting freedom of assembly and speech is not effective. Thirdly, the policy programs are effective. These findings show which P/CVE practices should be adapted to improve the effectiveness and it shows which P/CVE practices are effective as they are.Show less
This paper presents the findings of a qualitative content analysis of the extent to which social amplification impacted the development of counterextremism policy in The Hague, the Netherlands. The...Show moreThis paper presents the findings of a qualitative content analysis of the extent to which social amplification impacted the development of counterextremism policy in The Hague, the Netherlands. The analyzed data set included thirty-two written questions and policy documents from the The Hague Municipal Council and Municipality from the 2012 – 2017 period. Kasperson et al., 1998’s Social Amplification of Risk Framework was used as the theoretical lens for the analysis. The analysis found that amplification channels existed between the municipality, the council and community stakeholders. Furthermore, it was found that the municipality actively pursued strategies to open up new amplification channels and used community actors as amplification stations. The analysis moreover found that stigmatization of communities targeted by the counterextremism policy appears to have increased during time period, pointing to societal effects of social amplification. This paper provides insight into the strategies used by the municipality and how social amplification was actively enabled with the use of community actors.Show less
Over the last two decades, Muslim communities have been confronted with prejudice and hostility as an effect of the War on Terror and the narrative that Islam is synonymous with terrorism and...Show moreOver the last two decades, Muslim communities have been confronted with prejudice and hostility as an effect of the War on Terror and the narrative that Islam is synonymous with terrorism and violence. Instead of viewing radicalisation as a process involving deep-rooted societal issues such as discrimination and social exclusion, a disproportionate focus is put on the ideological push factor that is Islam to understand and combat radicalisation. This article examines the degree to which Islamophobia has been present in Dutch policies on Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism (P/CVE) through discourse analysis. Previous research examined the effects of elements of Islamophobia being present in governmental discourse on the Muslim communities, but there showed to be a gap in the research on how this anti-Muslim sentiment is reflected and can be recognized in governmental texts. Ten Terrorist Threat Assessment Reports that were published in the early stages of the War on Terror were compared with the ten most recent reports based on the framework of elements of a closed and open view of Islam as established by the Runnymede Trust in 1997. The analysis reveals that elements of Islamophobia have been present ever since the War on Terror in the form of constructing Muslims as the enemy and overgeneralising various factions within Islam, but have seen an increase in recent years, leading current reports to reinforce Islamophobic sentiment. This research allows for elements of Islamophobia in government texts to be recognized and confronted.Show less
This research explores the relationship between concern over “Islamic extremism” in counterterrorism and the rise of Islamophobia and anti-Muslim sentiment, and to what extent have these dynamics...Show moreThis research explores the relationship between concern over “Islamic extremism” in counterterrorism and the rise of Islamophobia and anti-Muslim sentiment, and to what extent have these dynamics contributed to the growth of the far-right in the case of Denmark. A better understanding of this relationship is relevant because the latter may continue flourishing despite efforts to curb extremist ideologies. Therefore, the purpose is to shed light on potential interplay, unintended consequences and outcomes that may arise from counter-extremism policies. Consequently, these policies can be adjusted more effectively, making a country more secure. Using discourse analysis on various documents and comparing them before and after 2015, the research maps out the situation of the three topics at hand in Denmark. This point in time was chosen because of the Copenhagen Shootings that changed the social and political environment of the country. The research finds that despite awareness of growing Islamophobia and anti-Muslim sentiment, there is a permanent focus on Islamic extremism in CVE, which increases the susceptibility of Islamic individuals to extremist ideologies. In turn, this increases Islamophobia, which far-right extremists can use to spread their ideology and expand more easily. The complex interaction is highlighted, and how the phenomena reinforce and affect each other is discussed.Show less
This paper explores the different and similar methods of violence used by Islamic violent extremists and right-wing violent extremists and how they are represented in the Dutch CVE policies. It...Show moreThis paper explores the different and similar methods of violence used by Islamic violent extremists and right-wing violent extremists and how they are represented in the Dutch CVE policies. It does so by using a qualitative content analysis supported by Atlas.ti. It can be concluded Islamic violent extremists more often methods of violence from their repertoire of contention, and that right-wing extremists more often use methods of aggression and this research has not been able to prove any element of contagion. This can therefore not be represented in the CVE policies. The Dutch CVE policies have incorporated the methods of violence well, but they do not represent the methods of aggression except for one difficult to prove legal loophole. It is therefore not the different characteristics of violence these groups employ that are not well represented, but the difference in choice between methods of aggression and violence is what is under-represented.Show less
