Due to the unique difficulties of studying hunter-gatherers in an archaeological context, researchers have been attempting to create accurate models to understand these contexts for decades....Show moreDue to the unique difficulties of studying hunter-gatherers in an archaeological context, researchers have been attempting to create accurate models to understand these contexts for decades. Although many schools of thought have emerged from this work, one of the most promising has been Optimal Foraging Theory, which attempts to model the optimal subsistence behaviour in a given context using environmental and anthropological data as inputs. One of the major limitations of Optimal Foraging Theory is that it requires a broad base of accurate data on the costs and benefits of different subsistence activities in order to create precise models. To help address this problem, we used hip-worn Triaxial Accelerometry to estimate relative energy expenditure during specific subsistence-related activities among the Baka of southeastern Cameroon. Our results demonstrate that hunting activities among the Baka involve significantly more movement than gathering or agriculture, implying more energy expenditure, while gathering and agricultural activities involve roughly similar levels of movement. Through the analysis of other variables, we also found that men perform significantly more movement than women when periods of rest are not included. However, there is no significant difference between these values when periods of rest are included. Furthermore, there are no significant differences in the average movement performed per unit time (including or excluding rest), or in the proportion of time spent at rest, between villages.Show less
Diet is integral to our existence and society. However, plant foods are often less well considered, despite their importance. Starch is a component of many plants, and studying starch grains and...Show moreDiet is integral to our existence and society. However, plant foods are often less well considered, despite their importance. Starch is a component of many plants, and studying starch grains and collecting them into a reference collection furthers our understanding of the use of plant foods throughout history. Starch grains in plants have the advantage of remaining in places where other, larger remains do not. Furthermore, starch grains also have their own characteristics and are taxon-specific, helping to more closely identify plants used for food. These identifications help us understand domestication processes of plants, and the diets and mobility patterns of humans. North America is a region of the world where plant food research is lacking; one bigger reference collection is known, though it is limited to one region of the United States. There is no known, accessible reference collection for starch grains for the entire region of North America. The main research question that was asked for this thesis revolved around the following: ‘how can starch grain analysis help us understand more about the use of plant foods between 1000 BCE and 1000 CE?’. Through the use of sub-questions examining North American diets, previous research surrounding starch grains, characteristics of starch to help identify them, and limitations of this type of research, a reference collection was built. This was done using a microscope to observe the chosen plants and note down any starch found and important characteristics of said starch grains. Of the 25 samples observed, 11 had starch. This implies that quite a large number of plants may be invisible through this method. These plants will need to be found in archaeological contexts through other methods. A further step for such research is to continue to build the reference collection, and broaden it to include more species, variants, and different parts of plants.Show less
The evolutionary, dietary mismatch theory argues that our ancient, genetically controlled biology does not match with our current dietary intake. Two boundaries are drawn which presumably caused...Show moreThe evolutionary, dietary mismatch theory argues that our ancient, genetically controlled biology does not match with our current dietary intake. Two boundaries are drawn which presumably caused this. First, the adaptation of agriculture and second the industrialization of it. In order to conclude anything regarding the link between our current mental- and physical health and the modern-day diet, a better understanding of these past changes is needed. Since, there is no ‘one agricultural diet’, the diets of three agricultural sites were reconstructed and compared: the Neolithic site of Schipluiden (ca. 3630 to 3380 BC), the Medieval site of Leiden Aalsmarkt (ca. 1125-1862) and the modern diet based upon the 2012-2016 RIVM food survey. These were reconstructed using the concrete data of botanical- and zooarchaeological evidence, and stable isotope analyses. Secondly, the abstract factors that influences our daily food choices were considered. These factors are complex, interconnected, personal and situational and can be subdivided into the macro-, physical-, and social surroundings, and individual choices. The three researched diets showed differences. First, the reduction of food sources used, arguably caused by our biological neophilia, while being neophobic. Second the source of animal protein, with a decrease of fish, and increase of bird consumption. Furthermore, the average Dutch person only consumes the recommended amount of dairy. While for the past diets much remains inconclusive, more requirements seemed to have been met. Because many unhealthy food items, of which current consumptions need to be limited, did not exist in the past. The second showed that the factors that influence our food choices have not changed much, but what they entail, and their level of importance has. This can create mismatches, such as the creation of an obesity promoting environment, due to our biological need to search for high energy dense foods and the current availability of many cheap, unhealthy but energy rich foods. It furthermore shows that an accurate reconstruction of resources used, still will not show the entire diet. The many options in food choices and cuisine, is an indispensable aspect of the human diet in the past, and present.Show less
