The aims of this thesis were threefold. The first and main aim was to examine urnfield – settlement relations for the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age within the research area of the eastern...Show moreThe aims of this thesis were threefold. The first and main aim was to examine urnfield – settlement relations for the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age within the research area of the eastern Netherlands. Secondly the overall picture of these relations within the eastern Netherlands was to be compared to the situation in the northern- and southern Netherlands. The third underlying aim was to illustrate the potential of the eastern Netherlands as an archaeological research area. In addition to the four already researched regions by Van Beek265 (these being south-western Salland; the northwestern and north-eastern Achterhoek and south-western Twente) north-eastern Twente was zoomed into as a fifth detail region. An examining of the present pre- and post-urnfield period settlements and burial location in combination with an inventory of the urnfield period settlements and urnfields and their locations within the physical landscape pointed out that both features underwent rather autonomous developments on the long-term scale and that both features had their own location within the physical landscape. The statement made in the previous sentence must be regarded as a trend and not as a law of Medes and Persians. Most of the settlements wandered around on the more central parts of sandy islands while many urnfields were situated more at the edges of these islands, mostly bordering on valleys that could have functioned as routes. Another substantial part of the urnfields was incorporated in an older burial site that was not necessarily situated at the edges of habitable units but also occurred more central within a territory. The urnfield of course clearly formed the constant factor within a presumed settlement territory compared to the wandering farmsteads that made use of the urnfield. Though the urnfield must have been very important to the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron communities in the bonding with the land and the ancestral world the “set-aside” locations of the urnfields suggest that they formed only a facet of life and not the centre of it. However by its monumental appearance and location on prominent spots within the landscape the urnfield must have been ever present on the background of daily life. A rough examining of the urnfields and settlements in the northern- and southern Netherlands showed that also in these regions attractive power is wielded on the urnfields by valleys present in the region. Habitation developments differ a little throughout the different regions. Where in Drenthe new terrains were colonized at the beginning of the urnfield period as a reaction on impoverishing soils and a growing population the settlements of the Meuse-Demer-Scheldt region in the south seem to have remained within the borders of the already existing territories or were founded at the cost of these territories, this despite comparable conditions as in the northern Netherlands. The eastern Netherlands shows examples of both events. Despite this difference in habitation developments urnfield – settlement relations in the northern- and southern Netherlands do not seem to have differed much from the situation in the eastern Netherlands. Though the urnfield is imputed a very central role in the southern Netherlands it seems at first hand that also here the urnfields were situated separate from the accompanying settlements instead of in the centre of them.Show less
The Iron Age-Roman Period transition is a much discussed subject. Key to this discussion is the process of Romanization. This term has had different definitions through time and several...Show moreThe Iron Age-Roman Period transition is a much discussed subject. Key to this discussion is the process of Romanization. This term has had different definitions through time and several alternatives exist. I have chosen to define Romanization as the processes involved in transitioning to the Roman Period. Central to these processes should be the possibility to use and manipulate Roman culture in ambiguous ways, creating new identities but also maintaining aspects of pre-Roman beliefs and practices. Using this as a theoretical framework several sites and aspects of the archaeological record of the micro-region Oss were discussed, comparing the data of the second half of the Late Iron Age with the data of the Early Roman Period. The main focus was put on indications of change and continuity. This descriptive and interpretative research resulted in an overview of the constants and changes around the beginning of the Roman Period. It became apparent that developments in settlements, housing, material culture and religious practices showed a lot of continuity. Change was detected, but most of the changes can be related to the ongoing long-term developments related to habitation become more nucleated and location bound. As such these so-called changes are more indicative of continuity. In my opinion, they may serve as indication of a growing need to structure space. This need shows no apparent link to the arrival of Roman troops in the southern parts of the Netherlands, nor does it seem to be related to the arrival of a Chatti sub-tribe from the Middle Rhine-region into the area. This does not mean that the Roman presence in the region had no effect on the local communities at all. These effects will have been mainly felt in the political and economical spheres of society. This can also be seen in the material culture of the four sites, with the ceasing circulation of La Tène glass and the rise of wheel-thrown pottery like terra sigillata. These results subscribe to the notion that Rome was not undertaking a civilizing mission, but rather seduced other groups of people with their culture instead of obliging them to accept it. So we can characterize this first phase of Romanization in the micro-region Oss as mainly influencing politics and economy, whilst the basics of everyday life remained relatively unaffected. This view has to be further supplemented for the period under discussion, but also for the succeeding Middle and Late Roman Period.Show less
The southern Netherlands is a highly discussed and intensely investigated area in the archaeology of the Netherlands. Large projects like Someren, Weert and Oss provide large amounts of information...Show moreThe southern Netherlands is a highly discussed and intensely investigated area in the archaeology of the Netherlands. Large projects like Someren, Weert and Oss provide large amounts of information. This fuels the discussion about prehistoric habitation in the area, like the Iron Age which is a crucial period of changes. A few subjects concerning this discussion are the decline of ‘wandering farmsteads’, the increase of diversity and the change towards a settled or nucleated habitation. In order to add a useful contribution to the discussion, two main research questions were constructed for this study and thesis. How are Iron Age ‘settlements’ characterised throughout the Iron Age in the southern Netherlands? Is the nucleation of habitation an abrupt change at the end of the Iron Age or is it a gradual process throughout the Iron Age? With critical notes on every step of the research, the main case study is done for the site of Oss-Horzak. The results of five other sites are incorporated in the thesis for a more broad view and comparison in the area of the southern Netherlands. These sites are: Oss-Schalkskamp, Oss-Almstein, Oss-Ussen, Weert-Molenakker, Someren-Waterdael and the four coversand ridges in Breda-west. Basically, the Early and Middle Iron Age settlements can be described as dispersed, or ‘open’. More than one farmyard on one coversand ridge might have wandered, but they could have lived as ‘open communities’. Some sites proved to have a decline of habitation in the Middle Iron Age. Oss-Horzak seems to fit in this picture, although there was a continuous habitation during the Iron Age. This, however, is not typical for the entire Oss region as Oss-Ussen proves otherwise with a gradual increase of population. The habitation in the Horzak is reinstituted before the Roman period, probably in the beginning of the Late Iron Age, considering the presence of contemporary large Iron Age ditch structure. Apart from Breda, all case study sites seem to have proof for a gradual, pre-Roman, process towards a nucleated settlement. In these cases, the term nucleation is not only based on spatial terms, but also on the cultural aspects of its meaning. Jointly features like ditch structures or enclosures have influence on the arrangements of settlements and the cultural landscape. The choice of constructing such features is probably done by leading organs, and constructed by more than one household. This suggests nucleation in a way, or at least a local community and a sense of cohesion.Show less
