This study researched the energy efficiency of acorn collecting in the Netherlands through experimental archaeology. The goal of this project was to expand the knowledge about diet in the past....Show moreThis study researched the energy efficiency of acorn collecting in the Netherlands through experimental archaeology. The goal of this project was to expand the knowledge about diet in the past. Diet is an important topic in archaeology, but organic material decomposes after death. This results in a gap in the archaeological record. The animal-plant subsistence rate is currently unknown, however, diversity is important for our diet and plants would have been a part of the subsistence of foragers in the past. According to the optimal forager theory, foragers use the most optimal resources in a habitat for their needs. The archaeological record shows that acorns were gathered by foragers, due to their many benefits. This study researched the energy efficiency of collecting acorns. The experiment was performed in a public park called Leidse Hout in the Netherlands. Eleven volunteers gathered acorns from the ground, while their energy expenditure, their VO2 level, was measured during different phases with a portable VO2 master device. Two standard energetic measurements, MET value, and kcal, were calculated and compared to different activities and studies to understand the intensity of the activity. A few conclusions could be made with the experiment data. Firstly, acorns have a high caloric return rate. Secondly, acorn collecting is, according to the low MET value, a low-intensity activity, comparable to slow walking and playing the cello. Thirdly, compared to other gathering activities, acorn collecting was the lightest. Lastly, this study showed no significant difference between the energy expenditure of men and women. Following the optimal foraging theory, foragers looking for energy efficient resources would have collected acorns, if available, due to the low costs and high benefits of the resource. This experiment archaeology project increased our current knowledge about the optimal foraging potential of acorns and showed that these nuts would have been a great addition to the diet of humans.Show less
Due to the unique difficulties of studying hunter-gatherers in an archaeological context, researchers have been attempting to create accurate models to understand these contexts for decades....Show moreDue to the unique difficulties of studying hunter-gatherers in an archaeological context, researchers have been attempting to create accurate models to understand these contexts for decades. Although many schools of thought have emerged from this work, one of the most promising has been Optimal Foraging Theory, which attempts to model the optimal subsistence behaviour in a given context using environmental and anthropological data as inputs. One of the major limitations of Optimal Foraging Theory is that it requires a broad base of accurate data on the costs and benefits of different subsistence activities in order to create precise models. To help address this problem, we used hip-worn Triaxial Accelerometry to estimate relative energy expenditure during specific subsistence-related activities among the Baka of southeastern Cameroon. Our results demonstrate that hunting activities among the Baka involve significantly more movement than gathering or agriculture, implying more energy expenditure, while gathering and agricultural activities involve roughly similar levels of movement. Through the analysis of other variables, we also found that men perform significantly more movement than women when periods of rest are not included. However, there is no significant difference between these values when periods of rest are included. Furthermore, there are no significant differences in the average movement performed per unit time (including or excluding rest), or in the proportion of time spent at rest, between villages.Show less
The issue of H. neanderthalensis’ diet has long been a debate between archaeologists, with interpretations ranging from faunal assemblages in neanderthal sites, stable isotope analysis, cooking...Show moreThe issue of H. neanderthalensis’ diet has long been a debate between archaeologists, with interpretations ranging from faunal assemblages in neanderthal sites, stable isotope analysis, cooking evidence, and studies of dental calculus. Traditional isotope research has focused on the δ13C or δ15N isotopic signature is based on the use of collagen found in bone, however it suffers the problem of easy degradation in deep time. The introduction of novel isotope techniques focused on the signatures of δ42/44Ca and δ66Zn can bypass this problem due to samples being extracted directly onto bone and enamel, thus decreasing the chances of lacking evidence and presenting similar and accurate results in dietary research. However, results position species into trophic levels and lack data on plant consumption, thus presenting H. neanderthalensis as a nearly exclusive carnivore in the hominin lineage. The objective of this thesis is a comprehensive review of the literature to study the feasibility of adopting such techniques into the research mainstream and the consequences that this would entail. Furthermore, techniques such as biomolecular analysis of dental calculus and faunal assemblages that refer directly to dietary habits and tendencies are both explored and used as proxies for increasing accuracy. While the scope of this thesis has significant limitations to fully asses dietary research techniques used for analysis of middle palaeolithic European neanderthals, the comprehensive review of the latest published literature and a comparative approach between different research methods aims to produce an accurate assessment of both novel isotope techniques and H. neanderthalensis diets.Show less
During the shift from the Hallstatt to the La Tène period, we can observe through the archaeological record the upcoming importance of iron in the central European Celtic culture. The ample...Show moreDuring the shift from the Hallstatt to the La Tène period, we can observe through the archaeological record the upcoming importance of iron in the central European Celtic culture. The ample discovery of long swords, daggers, spearheads and other sorts of weaponry, suggests a significant value given to these items of war. Lavished burials and large votive deposits in water-bodies such as the renowned lake of La Tène, provide us with an ever growing record. When we zoom in on the Celtic long sword, we can observe an interesting commonly found feature, namely punch marks. These are small, round marks occurring on the blade of some of the long swords and can be found as single marks, sometimes two, or occasionally even three marks on a single blade. Recurring themes on these punchmarks are animals which were more often depicted in the Celtic world. Interestingly, zoomorphic marks only represent boars, birds, horses or bulls, yet considering the large range of animals that were included in La Tène art, there must have been a specific meaning linked to these animals. For the larger part, these animals have a clear explanation as to why they are depicted on these items of warfare; the boars for their ferocity and violence, the horses for their use in combat, and the bulls for their strength and impressive stature. When we look at birds, the scavenger birds such as ravens were renowned for their pitilessness and them being the scavengers of war. However, when we look at the six known bird-like punch marks, we can identify three of them as being scavenger birds, and three of them as being a waterbird-like species. In this research, I will be solely focusing on three punch marks, which are situated on swords found in Ilbesheim, Heuchelheim and La Tène, and I will attempt to establish a clear linkage between the symbols and warfare. The observed fact that there are waterbird-like symbols on swords, raises the question what the linkage between waterbirds and warfare could be, and if we are actually able to attempt to give meaning to their symbolism. Hence, my main question arose, i.e. can a clear linkage between the Celtic waterbird imagery and warfare be established through the use of contextual analysis of similar Celtic waterbird imagery? And if I cannot establish a clear linkage to warfare, are there any other linkages that can be made?Show less
Due to the largely ungraspable nature of skill, the academic discourse lacks a structured research method for it. Material scientists make inferences about skill in hand-made artefacts based on...Show moreDue to the largely ungraspable nature of skill, the academic discourse lacks a structured research method for it. Material scientists make inferences about skill in hand-made artefacts based on subjective judgements, despite missing the knowledge craftspeople possess. These sometimes rather unquantified inferences could lead to incorrect views on past societies and their socio-economic organisation. The craftsperson’s perspective, recently proposed by Kuijpers (2018) provides a toolbox based on perceptive categorisation for more structured skill research for archaeometallurgy. Perceptive categorisations are made of different steps in the production process, which can be used to create a technological roadmap of an archaeometallurgical assemblage. This thesis concerns a pilot study for establishing a craftsperson’s perspective for the ceramic chaîne opératoire. The focus lies on one suitable sensory aspect therein, being temper concentrations in clay. A newly devised method is introduced and tested. This method is used for investigating human tactile sensitivity for differing temper (sand) percentages in clay in direct- and indirect-comparison experiments. Through doing sensory experiments with people with different levels of experience with working with clay, it is hypothesised that a positive correlation can be demonstrated between an increased sensory attunement to a material and a higher level of skill. Conclusions about the relationship between skill and sensory attunement were not reached. However, it can be concluded that in direct comparison, sand content differences between 0 % and 2,5 % can mostly be recognised and that the sample containing more sand can be mostly correctly identified up to a 5 % difference. In indirect comparison, on average, temper (sand) percentages in clay can be perceived rather accurate. In both cases, large differences exist between individuals. Based on error analysis of indirect comparison, a perceptive categorisation for sand content in clay is proposed. The combination of such categorisations for all relevant sensory aspects of the ceramic chaîne opératoire could stand at the basis of the establishing of a craftsperson’s perspective for ceramic analysis. This perspective could be applied to ceramic assemblages to develop new ideas, and challenge existing ones, on ceramics, craft, craft organisation, skill and specialisation, and socio-economic organisation, in past and present societies.Show less
This thesis investigates the topic of entomology within the field of archaeology. A current understanding of archaeo-entomology is displayed by showing the present-day uses on the field, such as in...Show moreThis thesis investigates the topic of entomology within the field of archaeology. A current understanding of archaeo-entomology is displayed by showing the present-day uses on the field, such as in environmental reconstruction and the studies of domestication, pests, and entomophagy. An overview of the most effective sampling methods such as floatation and sieving are covered in depth. This thesis tries to understand how feasible it is to uncover the relationships between humans and insects within Southern England using the currently available databases such as BugsCEP and SEAD. A diachronic comparison of the Neolithic, Roman and Contemporary periods were carried out to create a logical parameter for this research. The different types of relationships between humans and insects are defined and categorised, following this the insects corresponding to the periods in question are placed according to relationship. The results suggest the introduction of specific grain-eating beetles such as Oryzaephilus surinamensis estimated to have occurred during the Roman period, reflecting a switch in the types of human-insect relationships that were experienced. However, there is also a large amount of continuity of insects present between the three periods and identifying the true interaction proved difficult. Finally, this study also highlights the need for a new approach to looking at the field, namely from a more archaeologically minded perspective rather than a strictly biological one. Incorporating ideas such as Actor object Agency, the views of the theory behind relationships., notable examples are Serre’s ideas on parasitism, which can be applied to the topic of archaeo-entomology. This investigation was primarily carried out using desktop research and could be also used as a review on the current state of archaeo-entomology as a whole.Show less
The Tollense Valley is mostly known as a battlefield site, dating to the Bronze Age (1300 BC, Period III of the Nordic Bronze Age). This event has also been the focus point of past research and...Show moreThe Tollense Valley is mostly known as a battlefield site, dating to the Bronze Age (1300 BC, Period III of the Nordic Bronze Age). This event has also been the focus point of past research and surveys. However, the archaeological remains and its corresponding values as a cultural heritage site, are being threatened. The larger area of the sites is impacted by the dredging, straightening and deepening of the river and irrigation of the land. This results in a lower water table in the river and the adjacent peatlands. On top of that, the impacts are aggravated by climate change. Another threat to the site is the increase of visitors to the valley who damage sites by interfering with the archaeological layers and picking up finds. All these threats affect the preservation of the archaeological remains and the natural landscape which is part of the Nature 2000 areas. To protect (underwater) cultural heritage and its values, the feasibility of various mitigation strategies are discussed as part of Cultural Heritage Management. This thesis will follow the steps of Cultural Heritage Management to see how it can prevent further deterioration of the (underwater) cultural heritage.Show less
This thesis examines a new way of tracing individual life histories in the context of slavery in the Caribbean during the colonial period. The carbon stable isotopes in bioapatite were compared to...Show moreThis thesis examines a new way of tracing individual life histories in the context of slavery in the Caribbean during the colonial period. The carbon stable isotopes in bioapatite were compared to carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes in collagen of serial dentine samples in the case study of an enslaved African found on the island of Saba. Five dental elements were found out of anatomical context in a lockbox at Spring Bay Flat plantation. The use of bioapatite and collagen in tandem has been proved to provide extra valuable information in dietary studies and doing so in dentine increments yields an individual and high temporal resolution new to bioarchaeology. The individual studied here forcibly migrated from the African Sahel during the formation of the first molar, suffering from a period of nutritional stress before experiencing a dramatic dietary change. Multi-isotope analysis of both organic and inorganic matrixes in dentine increments is proven to be a valuable and innovative method of reconstructing individual life histories in unprecedented detail. The production of osteobiographies such as this one helps us to understand individual experiences during periods of slavery, captivity, and exploitation on a level that we can empathise with and therefore offers important and profound contributions to discussions on slavery and colonialism in a broader sense.Show less
Darién Province is an area which has until very recently received little attention from archaeology, mostly due to its remote geography and lack of infrastructure. The nearby Pearl Islands, by...Show moreDarién Province is an area which has until very recently received little attention from archaeology, mostly due to its remote geography and lack of infrastructure. The nearby Pearl Islands, by contrast, have recently seen a significant amount of research and field work including excavations. The Late Ceramic Period sites of San Antonio and Piangual (12th to 16th centuries CE) on the Darién mainland and the Middle Ceramic L-106 (7th to 10th centuries CE) on Pedro González island in the Pearl Islands are midden sites composed mainly of mollusk shells. The exploitation of these species appears to have been central to the foodways of the people who inhabited these areas before the Spanish colonial period. This thesis aims to change the perception of Darién as a place without an archaeological past and increase our understanding of the area by comparing the two sites on the mainland with the one on the island, focusing on the composition of mollusk species present at these sites. To achieve that goal, I use new data collected in 2019 and 2022 from the mainland and data from earlier excavations on Pedro González island. To compare these sites, I discuss the taxonomic composition of the mollusk species from each site and compare them in terms of the relative frequency of each species, typical habitats of the mollusk species represented, and in the case of the mainland sites their structure as midden contexts. Based on the results, I conclude that the species found in the island context barely overlap with those from the mainland, meaning few species are present at all three sites. For the habitat portion of the comparison I find that the habitats of the majority of mollusk taxa in each midden correspond with habitats near the sites. I also argue that Piangual is a predominantly modern, refuse midden context while the midden at San Antonio is a more complex site, containing at least two different types of occupation and one species of mollusk (Pinctada mazatlanica) that is rarely found in shell middens in the region. Finally, I acknowledge that more research and field work is needed before these results can be fully confirmed and understood.Show less
The Paleolithic site of Schӧningen located in Middle Saxony Germany has been an important focus of research in Central Europe since the 1980s, when excavations first began due to the preservation...Show moreThe Paleolithic site of Schӧningen located in Middle Saxony Germany has been an important focus of research in Central Europe since the 1980s, when excavations first began due to the preservation status of the artifacts uncovered. The site is near an open-cast lignite mine, so early research was the result of rescue archaeology. The waterlogged conditions at Schӧningen allowed for the preservation of wooden hunting spears, providing some of the oldest wooden artifacts in the world. This preservation of organic materials is rare and provides an important insight into the relationship between hominins and plants approximately 300,000 years ago. This thesis expands upon the environmental conditions and potential for plant exploitation by the hominins that were hunting at the site by analyzing botanical macro-fossils recovered from Schӧningen 12 II-4. This layer was excavated as part of the rescue archaeology operation and is chronologically contemporaneous with the ‘Spear Horizon,’ so the data from this project can give important context to the environmental conditions and the opportunities for plant materials that would have been available to the hunters. Despite the low archaeological context for this layer, the few artifacts recovered from Schӧningen 12 II-4 demonstrate the presence of hominins in the area and show the widespread use of the site. Ecological conditions derived from the fossilized taxa retrieved at Schӧningen 12 II-4 will be used to better understand the climate during the interglacial period. These taxa also provide a wealth of opportunities for exploitation in the form of food and medicine. These exploitation opportunities will be explored along with evidence to support the claims that hominins could have possessed the capabilities required to undertake plant identification and preparation. There is much debate within the archeological community about the interactions between hominins and plants due to the scarce amount of evidence available. This thesis project will investigate this relationship and discuss the possibilities further.Show less
Dutch colonial history and its past with slavery is a contentious topic in the Netherlands. A problem in the national debate is the general lack of knowledge about the Dutch exploits. In this...Show moreDutch colonial history and its past with slavery is a contentious topic in the Netherlands. A problem in the national debate is the general lack of knowledge about the Dutch exploits. In this thesis, I examine the possibility for research into the often forgotten Zeelandic colony of Essequibo, through the use of historical archaeology. Historical archaeology is a subfield of archaeology, created to examine the development of the modern world. Since the 1990s, it has shifted to become a critical subfield, challenging traditional historical narratives and exploring systems and structures from a bottom-up perspective. In the Caribbean, this subfield has been used successfully to understand the role and agency of enslaved Africans at the Galways plantation in Montserrat, by surveying and excavating the plantation through close collaboration with the descendants and local inhabitants. In St. Eustatius, another form of historical archaeology is used to map and document the many colonial buildings on the island, through careful and critical use of its limited historical documentation. These case studies provide useful information on how historical archaeology can be used to investigate the Essequibo colony in Guyana. Essequibo, like St. Eustatius, was a Dutch colony that, through its governmental structure and capture by the British, does not provide a lot of historical documentation. Historical archaeology can therefore be used to fill this gap of knowledge, while simultaneously offering a broader perspective on Dutch colonialism and slavery in this forgotten and neglected colony.Show less
The origin of speech is one of the biggest unanswered questions in the evolution of mankind. Scientist from all over the world from different disciplines using different methodologies have been...Show moreThe origin of speech is one of the biggest unanswered questions in the evolution of mankind. Scientist from all over the world from different disciplines using different methodologies have been trying to solve the mystery that is the origin of speech. An unambiguous answer however, remains absent. Using the method of comparative morphology and microbiomechanical studies, it can be studied when in our evolutionary history the anatomy fit to support speech production first arose, and thus which species first had the ability to talk. This thesis looks at published data on different hard structures of the vocal tract, in particular the hyoid, hard palate and mandible, of Australopithecus afarensis, Homo erectus, the SH hominins and Homo neanderthalensis to compare them to those of the modern human and non-human great apes vocal tract, in order to discover what we can infer about the origin speech based on the evolution of the vocal tract. This comparison has shown that based on their features, these hominins can be divided into two categories. The first category is that of archaic morphology and is characterized by a hyoid, hard palate and mandible that most closely resembles the anatomical features of the non-human great apes, in particular, chimpanzees. This means they possessed a bullashaped hyoid body, a long and broad hard palate and a long and narrow, chinless mandible. To this group belong the Australopithecus afarensis and Homo erectus. The second category is that of modern morphology and is characterized by the hyoid, hard palate and mandible that most closely resembles the anatomical features of modern humans. This means a bar-like hyoid body, a shorter and more narrow hard palate and a short and broad mandible with a bony protuberance, the chin. To this groups belongs the SH hominins the Homo neanderthalensis. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the anatomical features of the vocal tract fit to support the production of speech were already in place with, at least, Neanderthals. Therefore, Neanderthals could speak. The way forward for future studies into the origin of speech mainly is more data, both in terms of quantity and more species, though this is not something that can be forced. Establishing the origin of speech might open up a new path into studying the origin of language, a related, but not identical topic.Show less
This research paper focuses on better comprehending the importance of the cult if Isis-Fortuna in Pompeii and the surrounding area. It does so by studying a statuette from Boscoreale in great...Show moreThis research paper focuses on better comprehending the importance of the cult if Isis-Fortuna in Pompeii and the surrounding area. It does so by studying a statuette from Boscoreale in great detail and also comparing said statuette with other 2 examples (one from the same site and one from another key site in a Villa rustica in Scafati, Italy). This will allow us to gain a more in depth understanding of how Isis-Fortuna and her cult was worshipped by the middle/lower class people, as both these households are mainly agricultural. Great importance will also be placed on the context in which the statuettes were found, such as the villas themselves and the actual rooms and lararia (household shrines) where they were situated. Though the overall focus will remain the cult of Isis/Fortuna, it is important to go into more minute detail when observing these material finds to see them from a closer point of view instead of regarding them simply from a general context (which is often done with these kind of material finds). There is extensive use of literature and literary sources, as the paper is research based and theoretical. Some new hypotheses are made. The methodology itself is akin to what one would use during an archaeological dig, in the sense that it focuses on answering the overarching question by breaking it down with sub-questions that, initially, focus on a larger context and gradually go more into detail until the comparison of the statuettes is reached.Show less
This thesis compares the archaeobotanical remains from two Roman-era, Egyptian port sites: Berenike and Myos Hormos. A focus is put on the origin of the discovered materials, particularly in the...Show moreThis thesis compares the archaeobotanical remains from two Roman-era, Egyptian port sites: Berenike and Myos Hormos. A focus is put on the origin of the discovered materials, particularly in the context of the Silk Routes trade network of which these ports were a part. It concludes that Berenike seemingly had a larger focus on trade with Africa than Myos Hormos. Also, while both ports had Indian goods in their record, none seemed to have had a more pronounced focus on that subcontinent, although that was hypothesized beforehand. Furthermore, Berenike shows a decrease in the variety of goods traded after its period of inactivity in the 2nd and 3rd century, especially in regards to Indian goods. However, the variety and amount of local and African goods increased. The concurrent demise of Myos Hormos in this period did not seem to have an effect on the traded goods. Finally, this thesis served as a good example of how comparitive research beyond the level of the individual site could benefit the field of Silk Routes research, and which challenges this approach faces.Show less
Modern technology has allowed for non-destructive research of archaeological materials. These new methods number many and all have their advantages and disadvantages. One of the most popular non...Show moreModern technology has allowed for non-destructive research of archaeological materials. These new methods number many and all have their advantages and disadvantages. One of the most popular non-destructive devices used for material analysis is portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) machines. This thesis examines the various advantages and disadvantages of these machines, how they are used in an archaeological and conservation/museum context. Case studies have been collected and compared to an oversight of how pXRF machines are being used. The thesis concludes that pXRF devices are reliable, easy to use, cheap, non-destructive and informative devices. They also have consistent flaws such as the limited depth x-rays can penetrate, results that are not as precise as other methods and the 'point and shoot' mentality that it spawned. These problems can all either be solved or be compensated for.Show less
