Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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To understand southern Levantine funerary practices and the related cult of the dead within the territories of Israel, Palestine and Jordan, archaeology has long relied on biblical sources. This...Show moreTo understand southern Levantine funerary practices and the related cult of the dead within the territories of Israel, Palestine and Jordan, archaeology has long relied on biblical sources. This tendency has led to oversimplified comparative methodologies, in which the ancient Israelite cultural distinctiveness, between the Iron Age and the rise of the Roman power, has been stressed by opposing it to the neighbouring regions. Those elements of funerary rituals, not fitting biblical narratives have often been interpreted as ‘foreign’ and as such, neglected. However, dying is a complex social process through which the personhood of the deceased is reconstructed as a new identity, as well as its relationship with the living. Multiple overlapping factors affect this process: geographical, historical, socio-economic, ethnic and kinship components, and lastly personal attachments. This thesis aims to re-evaluate the southern Levantine old archaeological data sets and the complexity of death in terms of 'social process' by both putting aside the biblical reconstructions and introducing the methods deriving from funerary taphonomy. By combining both archaeological and osteological analyses regarding four case studies – Tell es-Saʿidiyeh, Tell Mazar, Lachish and Jerusalem – it attempts to reconstruct the progression of the funerary process through four main phases: the choice of the tomb-type, the preparation of the body, the deposition and the manipulation of the remains. The sequential process results in a multi-faceted experience embodying both deeply rooted rituals/beliefs and local variations due to groups and/or individual choices. In this context, the concept of foreign is re-defined as contamination and reflection of personal interests.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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The research presented in this thesis investigated the pottery assemblage of the Jebel Qurma region in the Black Desert (harra), north-eastern Jordan. The main reason for studying the pottery of...Show moreThe research presented in this thesis investigated the pottery assemblage of the Jebel Qurma region in the Black Desert (harra), north-eastern Jordan. The main reason for studying the pottery of this region was that no pottery studies of this region and the harra as a whole existed. Therefore, there existed a significant gap in the knowledge of this region. This was problematic for several reasons. First of all, pottery was one of the best ways of dating occupation in this area, since stratigraphic sequences are nearly absent. Additionally, pottery research in this region had the potential of illuminating the ties of this region, and the harra as a whole, to developments on its fringes and beyond. Four main aspects of the pottery were researched: technology, morphology, date and distribution. The technology and morphology were analysed following fabrics groups in which further variation was investigated. The dates of the pottery was researched using published literature on the dated pottery of other sites, in order to find parallels. The distribution was analysed according to numerous variables, including amounts (and weight), fabric, distance to water, visual prominence, Hillslope Point Classification, accessibility and chronology. The analyses of these aspects have led to the following conclusions: (1) The Jebel Qurma pottery assemblage is characterized by a large variety in both technological and morphological aspects, but mainly features rather coarse and simply-shaped vessels; (2) pottery was introduced in the region during the Early to Middle Bronze Age, disappears after this period and reappears in the Roman period, after which it continues to be in use up until the present; (3) the majority of the pottery was most likely used for domestic purposes, i.e. cooking, serving and short-term storage and (4) the pottery was used throughout the entire research area, but was concentrated on a few sites with favourable locations for settling that saw a lot of reuse through time. Furthermore, the research has shown that long-distance (trade) networks must have existed for pottery to appear in the harra, since most pottery came from sites located far away from the Jebel Qurma region. All in all, the research presented in this paper has increased our understanding of the pottery of the harra, as well as shown that the harra was not an isolated region, but incorporated into networks of exchange which lead to the spread of pottery to and throughout this region.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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Figurines are a common find on many Near Eastern Neolithic sites. As figurines have been interpreted as the material manifestation of changing perceptions and interactions between people and the...Show moreFigurines are a common find on many Near Eastern Neolithic sites. As figurines have been interpreted as the material manifestation of changing perceptions and interactions between people and the environment, they were deemed instrumental for our understanding of Neolithic societies. Traditionally researched through visual approaches, the focus has predominantly been on anthropomorphic figurines and their perceived femaleness. Through these approaches figurines have been studied as ritual objects, art and symbolic expressions and were linked to concepts of fertility, child-birth and divinity and as such have been also labelled as ‘mother goddesses’. These approaches have been generalising, glossing over variability and offering generalising interpretations. Furthermore, they neglected a large corpus of zoomorphic figurines, more ambiguous shapes and fragmented objects. This thesis takes another approach, positing that, in order to understand how figurines operated in society, we need to understand how figurines were made, used and deposited. Two research aims were formulated. Firstly, to carry out a case-study in which figurines were studied as a cohesive set, with no bias towards a certain type or only complete objects. Second, to ascertain whether or not categories established by visual analysis are recognisable in the archaeological record when looking at figurine materiality and aspects of production, use and deposition. The data set of this thesis consists of the 280 figurines from one part of the excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad (Syria), named Operation III, spanning four levels of habitation and dating from ca. 6455 to 6225 BC. This thesis starts by offering a detailed argumentation detailing the problems inherent in three main ways figurines have been studied, namely: as art, symbolic expressions and ritual objects. Subsequently it offers new avenues for figurine research, highlighting the necessity to engage with the materiality of figurines, combining discursive and non-discursive knowledge and stating that the ‘meaning’ of figurines is not solely constituted by their visual imagery but is also inherent in the processes of production, use and deposition.It continues with an overview of the site of Tell Sabi Abyad; its excavation history, the nature of settlement in Operation III and detailed contextual and depositional information for the figurines used in this case-study. It also takes a broader perspective, contextualising Tell Sabi Abyad in the broader perspective of Late Neolithic Upper Mesopotamia. The next chapter is dedicated to a detailed analysis of the data set starting with establishing a typology. Subsequently, it examines the contextual settings of figurines and related finds, figurine materiality, markings, fragmentation and finally spatial patterning and patterns through time. The analysis showed that figurine making is a highly idiosyncratic practice. There is much variety in the form of figurines within types, Furthermore, types of figurines can be very restricted in time; sometimes almost restricted to a single settlement level. There is variety in figurine use as evidenced by their use wear. Sometimes they seem to have been intentionally cached, but mostly they were discarded after use. This idiosyncrasy has implications that reach beyond the site under study. The over-arching and generalising statements made about figurines do not hold up to close scrutiny at this site, which either makes Tell Abi Abyad an exception, or it means that this type of research will reveal that in fact these generalising statements are false for other sites as well. This will mean we need to drastically alter the current perceptions of how figurines functioned in specific communities and what they ‘meant’ to the people making and using them.Show less
This BA thesis investigates the worked-bone assemblage of Late Bronze Age (LBA) Tell Sabi Abyad (ca. 1230-1150 B.C), a settlement mound located in the Raqqa province of Northern Syria. The LBA...Show moreThis BA thesis investigates the worked-bone assemblage of Late Bronze Age (LBA) Tell Sabi Abyad (ca. 1230-1150 B.C), a settlement mound located in the Raqqa province of Northern Syria. The LBA settlement comprises a Middle Assyrian stronghold. It was a military and administrative centre which primarily functioned as a fortified farmstead, named a dunnu by the Assyrians. The goal of this thesis is to determine the character of the assemblage and to shed light on the function and role of the bone artefacts in the LBA society. In addition I have performed a diachronic analysis to find out whether the assemblage changed through time. The worked-bone assemblage is a relatively small but diverse. It comprises approximately 105 artefacts. A preliminary classification, based on morphology, is presented. The assemblage consists of three categories: bone tools, bone ornaments and other bone objects. The category bone tools comprise awls, combs, needles, spatulas and nails. The bone ornaments exist from beads, inlay, plaques and a bracelet. The other bone objects comprise discs, polished knucklebones and a number of miscellaneous objects. First, the function of the artefacts is analysed based on their morphology and when possible, traces of use. For some artefacts, the analysis of the morphology could not shed light on a plausible function. To further elucidate their function and role, the context of the artefacts was analysed. I have tried to elucidate in which areas of the LBA settlement the bone artefacts were used. From the context and morphology it appears that the worked-bone artefacts were used in domestic buildings, workshops and in open areas of the Late Bronze Age settlement. They were probably used for pottery production and in the production of basketry, matting and leather working. The bone objects had a diverse role in society as they were used as tools, jewellery, personal ornaments, game pieces and grave goods. They were present in every phase of the LBA occupation. The worked-bone objects of LBA Tell Sabi Abyad may have been small in numbers but were used in all dimensions of society for a large variety of activities.Show less
In this paper, the secondary burials from the late Neolithic in northern Mesopotamia and from Tell Sabi Abyad in Syria are investigated. Secondary burials were found at Bouqras, Tell el-Kerkh,...Show moreIn this paper, the secondary burials from the late Neolithic in northern Mesopotamia and from Tell Sabi Abyad in Syria are investigated. Secondary burials were found at Bouqras, Tell el-Kerkh, Hakemi Use, Yarim Tepe I and II, Tell Hassuna, Halula, Tell es-Sawwan and Arpachiyah. At Tell Sabi Abyad three secondary deposits and nine potential secondary deposits were found. The secondary burials represent only a small portion of the total number of burials that are found. Secondary burials are an exception. Different types of secondary burials from the late Neolithic are found in northern Mesopotamia and at Tell Sabi Abyad. Skulls seem to play an important role. The skulls were removed from graves and reburied. There are also primary and secondary deposits found on floors in buildings. At Tell Sabi Abyad bones of humans and animals are found together in a tholos. At different sites deposits of human and animal bones are found, sometimes together with fragments. These are possibly waste deposits. The secondary burials found at Tell el-Kerkh and Tell es-Sawwan do not seem to correspond with the secondary burials at the other sites. At Tell el-Kerkh pits with many disarticulated human bones are found, these were not found on other sites that were examined. At Tell es-Sawwan red ochre and grave goods were found in secondary burials. At the other sites, no red ochre was found in the secondary burials. Grave goods are rare in the secondary burials found at other sites, and usually only found as fragments in waste deposits.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
2014-01-01T00:00:00Z
The interpretations of unusual burials in archaeology are often highly tentative. A focus on the context-bound meaning of a specific mortuary ritual can prevent archaeologists from gaining a more...Show moreThe interpretations of unusual burials in archaeology are often highly tentative. A focus on the context-bound meaning of a specific mortuary ritual can prevent archaeologists from gaining a more conclusive understanding of the data at hand, and limit the value of such interpretations. The meaning behind these acts is very difficult to derive, especially in prehistoric periods. In order to allow for a more profound interpretation, a systematic approach was chosen for in the investigation of the unusual burials of the Late Neolithic cemetery at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria. The unusual burials were not studied in isolation but as part of the statistical analysis of the entire buried population. This enabled the singling out of cases that were (statistically) significantly different to the rest of the population, and the examination of their divergence in multiple aspects. Focusing on the behavioral aspect of ritual, rather than on its meaning, made it possible to study the trends of mortuary practices visible in the cemetery. The analysis revealed the formation of groups within the unusual burials, that make up a large segment of the buried population. The interpretation of the results of this study suggests that 'unusual burial' is not external to, but part of the normative death rites and ritual life at Late Neolithic Tell Sabi Abyad.Show less
On the Syrian archaeological site Tell Sabi Abyad extensive traces of reed phytoliths and imprints have been found during the excavation seasons 2008 and 2009. These silica imprints can be...Show moreOn the Syrian archaeological site Tell Sabi Abyad extensive traces of reed phytoliths and imprints have been found during the excavation seasons 2008 and 2009. These silica imprints can be allocated stratigraphically to either one of the Early Ceramic Neolithic levels A-4A and A-4B, dating to approximately 6400 calBC. The reed phytoliths and imprints are often accompanied with impressions of branches or beams. The role and function of the reed and beam impressions is unclear, forming for instance either a roof of the level A-4B buildings, or a foundation layer of the level A-4B structures. Both allocations are problematic, as the roofs would have covered buildings with an average height of approximately 80 centimetres, while the occurrence of beams in foundation layers - as opposed to the use of reed - seems without ethnographic parallels. When confronting an assessment of the excavation data regarding reed silica imprints and beam impressions with architectural and ethnographical hypotheses, the possible role and function of the reed and beams is clarified. Through a process of eliminating non-viable hypotheses a clear picture emerges: the reed and beams can only be interpreted as being a part of the foundation layer of level A-4A, constructed after the levelling of the remains of the previous level A-4B.Show less
This paper utilizes unpublished excavation data from Leiden University’s excavation at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria to examine two types of figurines from the site’s Late Bronze Age Middle Assyrian...Show moreThis paper utilizes unpublished excavation data from Leiden University’s excavation at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria to examine two types of figurines from the site’s Late Bronze Age Middle Assyrian occupation in the late 13th and 12th centuries BCE. Beyond the contextual and analytical presentation of new material to the archaeological community, it reestablishes an understudied typology through the promotion of a geographical, chronological, cultural, and functional frameworks. This study uses the figurines as a base to explore issues inherent in their find contexts and preservation. After establishing typologies and object catalogs, it explores the archaeological visibility of intentional material disregard, the dynamism of contemporary value attributions to representative material culture, and the interplay of ancient peoples with their local histories. In highlighting the functionality of a symbolic material culture that existed outside the settlement’s imperial sphere, this thesis uses the figurines to reveal the cosmopolitan nature of the common people at Tell Sabi Abyad. The study establishes one typology as non-Assyrian and invasive, and uses the context and fracture patterns of the others to show that they reflect utilitarian rather than ritual usage.Show less
This thesis includes a technological and functional analysis of blades from the Late Uruk period settlement of Jebel Aruda in northern Syria. The settlement of Jebel Aruda has, together with...Show moreThis thesis includes a technological and functional analysis of blades from the Late Uruk period settlement of Jebel Aruda in northern Syria. The settlement of Jebel Aruda has, together with contemporary and neighbouring settlements like Habuba Kabira-süd, been interpreted as a southern Mesopotamian colonial emplacement in northern Mesopotamia, also known as ‘the Tabqa enclave’. Of these Jebel Aruda has been interpreted as a special administrative or religious centre, because of its unusual location and its large residential buildings centred around a temple. Together with the ‘Tabqa enclave’ many other southern Mesopotamian colonies have been discovered in northern Mesopotamia and on such a large scale that this phenomenon has been called an ‘Uruk expansion’. The underlying reasons for the Uruk expansion have been the subject of debate for many years. Among the theories seeking to explain the expansion, the ideas by Guillermo Algaze have been the most influential. According to Algaze the expansion was primarily motivated by the demand for important trade goods which were lacking in the south of Mesopotamia, through long-distance trade. Moreover in this view, the character of the expansion was one of a southern Mesopotamian dominance over the indigenous northern Mesopotamian communities, regarded as the periphery. The ‘Tabqa enclave’ specifically has always been regarded as unfit for agriculture, and dependent on trade for its survival. Interestingly, the Uruk period in northern Mesopotamia also saw the birth of a specialized and standardized blade product, the Canaanean blade. During the period immediately succeeding the Uruk expansion in northern Mesopotamia, the Ninevite V period, this blade type was produced specifically for the agricultural practice of threshing. The technological and functional analysis of the blades from Jebel Aruda indicate that the Canaanean blade also played a central role in agricultural activities during the Late Uruk period, functioning both as sickles and as threshing sledge implements. It further seems that the Canaanean blade was an important trade product already during the Late Uruk period. Its production was gradually intensified, and the blades were traded on a regional scale in the north. Not only has the functional analysis proven that agriculture was practiced around Jebel Aruda and at the ‘Tabqa enclave’, it seems to indicate that agriculture might have been the primary motivation behind the Uruk expansion. Finally, analysis of the blades suggests that Jebel Aruda’s lithic assemblage was very similar to other southern Mesopotamian colonies in the north, indicating that its character might not have been as different as assumed.Show less
