Modern academic and popular literature contains an abundance of parenting advice. One of the most controversial issues is child discipline. This paper presents a historical overview of the trends...Show moreModern academic and popular literature contains an abundance of parenting advice. One of the most controversial issues is child discipline. This paper presents a historical overview of the trends in experts’ discipline recommendations between the 1940s and 2010. It focuses on three delineated directions which emerged post-World War II: the permissive revolution, attachment research, and the politicization of parenting. The paper sought to establish their development throughout the years, considering the changes in reasoning which underpinned the advice. Six secondary sources were identified through searching scientific and popular platforms (i.e. Scopus, Google Scholar, Google Books and Archive). These were used to identify 46 suitable primary childrearing publications which were selected based on publication date, format, addressee, and purpose. The results revealed that each of the examined trends underwent notable evolution. Permissiveness was initially acclaimed as a respite from the behaviourist idealisation of obedience but quickly began being seen as unsustainable and potentially provoking maladjustment. Nevertheless, it was not fully rejected and presently informs the more balanced discipline approaches such as positive parenting. Attachment-based advice evolved from concerns engendered by wartime evacuation to a fascination with primal bonding and tribal cultures, and towards the modern forms of attachment parenting. The post-war popularity of democratic methods of parenting faded with the impending threat of the Cold War as overly liberal rearing was seen as politically dangerous. By the end of the 20th century, references to such aspects of parenting were no longer present in most manuals. The findings of the current study findings have implications for both academic and popular understanding of many of the discipline practices researched and recommended today.Show less
There are many instruments available to measure parental sensitivity, however each has its own limitations. In search of a more efficient instrument, an adapted mini-MBQS is proposed, in which...Show moreThere are many instruments available to measure parental sensitivity, however each has its own limitations. In search of a more efficient instrument, an adapted mini-MBQS is proposed, in which parents sort the cards instead of professionals. In this study, parent’s accuracy to report about their own parental sensitivity with this adapted Q-sort was explored. Additionally, it has been explored whether sex of the parent and parental reflective functioning influence parent’s accuracy on the Q-sort. To answer these questions, two online home visits were conducted with twenty parent-child pairs. During the home visits parent and child played together. Afterwards, the parent sorted the Q-sort about how sensitive s/he thought s/he was to the child during the play task. The play task was recorded and later coded on parental sensitivity with the Ainsworth Maternal Sensitivity Scale by a professional. Furthermore, parents filled in a questionnaire between the two online home visits, which contained questions about the family’s background and parental reflective functioning. The results from parent-reported and observed sensitivity were compared, which showed a positive, but weak and non-significant correlation of .22, suggesting a mismatch between parent’s own judgement and that of a professional about the level of sensitive parenting. Next, two ANCOVAs were conducted and showed that sex of the parent (F (1,16) < .01; p = .95) and parental reflective functioning (F (1,16) = .06; p = .81) did not moderate the relationship between observed and parent-reported sensitivity. From these results, it can be concluded that parents are not accurate when reporting about their parental sensitivity with the Q-sort. In addition, the results showed that gender or self-reported level of parental reflective functioning do not influence this accuracy. Therefore, it is not recommended to use the current form of the adapted MBQS as an instrument to measure parental sensitivity.Show less
Research master thesis | Developmental Psychopathology in Education and Child Studies (research) (MSc)
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Theory of Mind (ToM) is a central topic in psychology and neuroscience. Nevertheless, debates persist regarding the validity and reliability of ToM measurement. Recent documentation of numerous...Show moreTheory of Mind (ToM) is a central topic in psychology and neuroscience. Nevertheless, debates persist regarding the validity and reliability of ToM measurement. Recent documentation of numerous failed replications in ToM research, involving both children and adults, highlights the need for establishing effective methods for measuring ToM across the lifespan. In response to this challenge, an international multi-lab collaboration named Many Babies 2 (MB2) has been launched, with Leiden University Babylab participating in this project. This thesis discusses preliminary findings related to the 16 adults tested at our lab. Following the MB2 protocol, an eye-tracker attached to a screen recorded participants’ looking behavior (first look [FL] and differential looking scores [DLS]) in an anticipatory looking task. We had two main goals. First, we aimed to find evidence of an automatic and implicit form of ToM in adults, by investigating whether participants’ looking behavior varied depending on a character’s mental state (i.e. whether the character was knowledgeable (condition 1) or ignorant (condition 2) about a specific situation). Contrary to our expectations, neither FL nor DLS differed between the experimental conditions. Second, we examined whether participants’ looking behavior was affected by (a) the selection of the anticipatory period, and (b) participants’ simultaneous activation of a conscious and explicit form of ToM, which had been measured with a debriefing questionnaire. We concluded that none of these factors significantly impacted participants’ looking behavior at a group level. However, FL and DLS of individual participants randomly varied when processed with different anticipatory periods; therefore, further research is needed to determine which anticipatory period minimizes the presence of noise in the data. While recognizing the preliminary nature of our findings, our insights contribute to the ongoing efforts to refine ToM assessment methods, underscoring the importance of addressing challenges in measuring this fundamental aspect of human cognition.Show less
Research master thesis | Developmental Psychopathology in Education and Child Studies (research) (MSc)
closed access
This thesis is part of a multi-lab eye-tracking project investigating implicit Theory of Mind (ToM) in toddlers and adults (ManyBabies2). Given the recent number of unsuccessful replications in...Show moreThis thesis is part of a multi-lab eye-tracking project investigating implicit Theory of Mind (ToM) in toddlers and adults (ManyBabies2). Given the recent number of unsuccessful replications in this field, the focus of this thesis lies in investigating the impact of methodological considerations regarding data quality on the obtained results. Specifically, this thesis addresses differences in eye-tracking data quality (accuracy, precision, and data loss) between toddlers and adults. Further, it examines how differences in data quality (precision and data loss) affect the dependent variables in an anticipatory looking (AL) task to measure ToM, and whether the results of the AL task change by adjusting the parameters of a standard fixation classification algorithm (i.e., the Tobii I-VT filter) to account for low data quality. A total of 16 adults and 16 toddlers (N = 32) participated in the ManyBabies2 study at the Leiden University lab. The AL task included two test trials with an ignorance and knowledge condition, during which participants’ looking behavior (first look and proportion differential looking score [DLS]) was measured. The results showed a significant difference in average data quality between toddlers and adults, with toddlers having lower accuracy and precision and higher data loss than adults. Moreover, the results indicated that data loss significantly affects proportion DLS in the ignorance and knowledge condition. However, no differences in AL looking behavior were found between the Tobii I-VT default and adjusted parameters. The findings of this thesis emphasize the need for consistent reporting of data quality. Future research should conduct larger-scale studies to validate and expand upon the findings in this thesis, and focus on refining the fixation classification algorithm parameters of the Tobii I-VT filter to adjust for differences in data quality.Show less
Children are known to rely on others’ facial expressions to guide their behavior and to use their own affective state to elicit desired reactions. Recent facial mimicry literature argues that...Show moreChildren are known to rely on others’ facial expressions to guide their behavior and to use their own affective state to elicit desired reactions. Recent facial mimicry literature argues that automatic imitation of others’ emotional expressions can be altered based on social motivations. The present study aimed to explore the impact of learning about children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors on young adults’ facial mimicry to children’s sad dynamic displays. Potential moderations of implicit gender bias and time spent with children were also investigated. Our final sample included 25 young adults (80% females) between the ages of 18 and 30. Participants’ frowning responses to primary-school aged children’s video displays of sad facial expressions were measured via facial electromyography (fEMG). Using a within-subject design, facial mimicry was assessed before and after learning about children’s behaviors. Participants additionally estimated a total weekly hours they spend with children and completed an adapted Implicit Association Task (IAT) measuring their implicit gender bias towards children’s behaviors. Results did not reveal any significant change in young adults’ facial responses after learning about children’s behaviors, suggesting that internalizing behaviors did not elicit increased mimicry compared to externalizing behaviors and baseline. An interaction of participants’ implicit gender bias was found with behavior and time (p = .04). Adults with greater positive bias tended to mimic internalizing children more than externalizing children. Lastly, no moderation of time spent with children was found, which might be a result of a lack of variability in the sample. The present study tentatively points towards a moderation of implicit gender bias on adults’ affiliative motivations. Prevention and intervention programs may be needed to increase caregivers and teachers’ sensitivity and responsivity to high risk children’s emotional expressions.Show less
The aim of the present study is to investigate the relationship between the amount of day care and the quality of mother-child relationship for babies around 12 months of age. It is important to...Show moreThe aim of the present study is to investigate the relationship between the amount of day care and the quality of mother-child relationship for babies around 12 months of age. It is important to investigate this relationship as many more parents use daycare for young children nowadays than in the past. The sample of the current study was a semi-random selection from a larger longitudinal study. The participants consisted of 70 mothers between 25 and 44 years old (M = 32.9 years, SD = 3.9) and their babies who where around 12 months old (M = 378.9 days, SD = 12.8). Based on earlier research, it was predicted that fewer hours of day care would be associated with a more secure attachment relationship. In addition, it was predicted that this relationship would be moderated by the temperament and the gender of the child. Mothers where invited to participate in the Babylab at the Leiden University. The Strange Situation Procedure (Ainsworth, 1978) was used to assess attachment quality and temperament was measured by the Dutch version of the Infant Characteristic Questionnaire (Kohnstam, 1984). Contrary to our hypothesis, it was found that infants who spent more than 20 hours of day care were more securely attached than infants who had less than 20 hours of day care. This difference was found not to be moderated by the level of temperamental difficultness or the gender of the infant. In conclusion, the current study takes a more positive view on more hours of day care for babies around 12 months old. Future research should include factors, such as quality of daycare and caregiver sensitivity, to further clarify the relationship between attachment quality and amount of daycare usage.Show less
