Irrigation technologies and more particularly qanat-type falaj irrigation and its first emergence, are one of the key topics of Arabian prehistory. Magee suggests that falaj systems and the...Show moreIrrigation technologies and more particularly qanat-type falaj irrigation and its first emergence, are one of the key topics of Arabian prehistory. Magee suggests that falaj systems and the domestication of the camel considerably facilitated the Iron Age II population boom in Southeastern Arabia (Magee 2004). Here, four irrigation systems are systematically discussed along three research questions addressing their location, characteristics and how they were dated. The four sites are located in regions, were hot desert climate prevails and groundwater was easily available. The communities conducted qanat-type falaj irrigation (Hili, Al Madam), runoff irrigation (Masafi) and potentially manual irrigation (Wadi Fizh). Modification traces (Al Madam, Masafi) indicate a continuous use of the structures and sluices (Hili, Masafi) point towards water management activities. All systems were dated based on Iron Age II pottery; the system at Al Madam was furtherly dated by radiocarbon dates and the system at Masafi by dates from microcharcoal analysis. The absolute dates from Al Madam and Masafi were strong indicators for a dating to the Iron Age II period, showing that falaj and runoff irrigation were conducted at the time. Reconstructing past water tables and studying construction techniques will be suitable approaches, to further research how Iron Age II communities were irrigating.Show less
Figurines are some of the most commonly found artefacts in Neolithic sites across the Near East. These objects have often stimulated colourful interpretations, focussing primarily on stylistic...Show moreFigurines are some of the most commonly found artefacts in Neolithic sites across the Near East. These objects have often stimulated colourful interpretations, focussing primarily on stylistic elements of the anthropomorphic subjects. Such elements, like their perceived femaleness accompanied by voluptuousness, have historically been deemed as directly linked to concerns with fertility and pregnancy, which led to the assumption of the figurines being ritual objects and representations of deities, often labelled as ‘mother- goddesses’. These interpretations essentially generalize the entirety of the figurine assemblages of the Neolithic world, and erase the possibilities of in-depth analysis of these objects. This thesis takes on a different approach, with the belief that a comprehensive analysis that aims to understand these objects should first of all focus on the assemblage of a single context (namely a single site in a given chronological frame), covering the full ‘life-span’ of the figurines within such spatial, chronological, and cultural boundaries, starting from the context of deposition, the process of manufacture and the possible uses. Stylistic observations should only be considered in association to these aspects just mentioned, in the case of possible patterns highlighting the meaning and uses of these objects. A comparative analysis of two or more assemblages could be introduced at a second stage of analysis, within pertinent geographical and chronological boundaries, in order to highlight possible differences and similarities. This approach is what was applied for the research of the figurines of two Neolithic sites of the Lake District in Western Anatolia: Hacilar and Höyücek. These sites, broadly dated to the Late Neolithic period (ca. 6,400 – 6,000 BC), present a significant corpus of figurines, which amount to 72 for Hacilar, and 84 for Höyücek, with the aims of investigating their contexts of deposition and their manufacturing processes in order to highlight possible meaning and uses that were associated to these emblematic objects withi the individual sites and in a broader regional context. The structure of this research will start with an introductory chapter on the Neolithic in the Lake District (Chapter 1), followed by a theoretical chapter that will discuss the history of figurine studies, and will frame the theoretical approach preferred for this research. The datasets of Hacilar and Höyücek will be discussed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4, which will then be compared in their results in Chapter 5. Finally, the conclusions of this research will be presented in Chapter 6. This research has shown that the figurines of Hacilar and Höyücek had highly dynamic meanings and uses, even within the same sites, which on the one hand shows how inherently flawed the past research has been, and on the other it opens up new avenues of research around aspects like the manufacturing process, which have barely been actively studied in figurines.Show less
Animals have played a major role in the Halaf. Animals did not only figure in Halaf subsistence and the economy, but they also played a prominent role in symbolism. We encounter animals in...Show moreAnimals have played a major role in the Halaf. Animals did not only figure in Halaf subsistence and the economy, but they also played a prominent role in symbolism. We encounter animals in different material categories, as images in wall paintings, on Halaf Fine Ware ceramics, sealings, and as stamps for sealing, amulets, and figurines. Animal remains have been found alongside those of humans, or in other special or ritual contexts. How can we understand these animal representations and ‘ritual’ animal deposits? This preliminary study explores the meanings of animals in the Halaf by using a new approach that was never employed in this area before: Social zooarchaeology. Social zooarchaeology views animals not only as ‘good to eat’, but also as ‘good to think with’ as Lévi-Strauss so famously pointed out. This study investigates multiple case studies from various sites, like Domuztepe (Turkey), Tell Kurdu (Turkey), Kazane Höyük (Turkey), Fıstıklı Hüyük (Turkey), Tell Sabi Abyad (Syria), Tell Khirbet esh-Shenef (Syria), Tell Arpachiyah (Iraq), Banahilk (Iraq), and Yarim Tepe I and II (Iraq). In order to interpret the various animal representations and ritual deposits, every material category and ritual animal deposit is considered in its depositional context and context of use. Furthermore, comparisons with the zooarchaeological record are made, and subsistence. Four main contexts can be recognized in which animals fulfilled symbolic roles, and these often overlap: 1) Domestic space, 2) ‘ritual’, including communal events, commensality and burial, and 3) administration, including storage, the marking of property, and the usage of objects as mnemonic devices, and 4) bodily adornment. It appears that animals might have functioned as a common spoken language in the sharing economy, figuring in complex narratives, myths, and rituals, enforcing human-human relationships and tying together diverse people from various backgrounds in communal events.Show less
Deze Bachelor scriptie gaat over de relatie tussen grafgoederen en de status van een persoon, er is onderzoek gedaan naar de verschillende grafgiften en bij wie deze gevonden worden.
Few aspects of human agency are as sparsely treated in archaeological literature as the act of human defecation in the Ancient Near East, as only a limited number of toilets have been found and...Show moreFew aspects of human agency are as sparsely treated in archaeological literature as the act of human defecation in the Ancient Near East, as only a limited number of toilets have been found and published. This paucity is unfortunate, as sanitary technology as a phenomenon can have implications for a wide range of human socio-economic behaviour. The scarce literature indicates a predominance of squatting toilets, when compared to seating toilets. Based on an overview of the published toilets, this assumption does not bear out, as an overview of the available data suggests that seating toilets were equally “common”. At the same time toilets were not “common” at all: the large majority of toilets were found in urban and elite contexts. As such, the spread of sanitary technology like toilets and especially sewage systems might be indicative of social complexity, starting in Southern Mesopotamia in the 4th Millennium BC, eventually reaching Syria in the 2nd Millennium BC. In Tell Sabi Abyad toilets have been found in an Assyrian Late Bronze Age fortified estate, a so called dunnu, that was the property of an elite Assyrian family. These are the only toilets in the Ancient Near East that have been so far found outside an urban context. Although the small scale of the settlement does not necessitate toilets, its defensive role might. In addition the toilets may well have been part of the habitus of Assyrian nobility. Remarkably, these toilets stayed in use and were even rebuilt long after the dunnu lost its importance and connection to nobility, indicating an emulation of status behaviour, and a transfer of elite values.Show less
When Middle Assyrians conquered the land of Hanigalbat during the 14th and 13th century, they did several changes in the settlement systems of the area. This paper is mainly concerned with the...Show moreWhen Middle Assyrians conquered the land of Hanigalbat during the 14th and 13th century, they did several changes in the settlement systems of the area. This paper is mainly concerned with the changes happened during the transitional phase from the Mitanni to the Middle Assyrian period. Several works have been lately published about the Middle Assyrians in general but the Mitanni period has been generally neglected. The research of this paper tackles the subject through a bibliographical overview of the current archaeological data concerning the period. The questions which are going to be investigated in this paper about the transition from Mitanni to Middle Assyrians are: What changes did the Middle Assyrians brought to the administrative system of the area? What changes do we see in the settlement system? How did the agricultural economy evolved, what are the results of the intensification of agriculture and how did this affect the changes in settlement systems? In order to answer those questions the paper is divided in 4 chapters. In the first chapter I do a historical overview of the periods from the 15th to the 13th century BC. The historical overview is important to create the context in which I am going to work and it provides crucial information about the names of certain sites which will be investigated. In the first chapter I also provide a brief state of the archaeological research of the periods. In the second chapter I thoroughly investigate three areas, t e Balīḫ Valley, the Upper Ḫābūr Valle and t e Upper igris regi n. I pr vide general information of the areas and examination of certain sites which are used as examples. At the end of each subchapter there are conclusions concerning each specific region. The third chapter deals with agriculture and the changes of agriculture during the early period of the Middle Assyrian Empire. In order to examine the subject of agriculture I use two well documented sites, Tell Sabi Abyad and Dūr-Katlimmu. These sites have been chose because they provide us with important textual evidence and allow the reconstruction of their agricultural productivity. The study of agriculture allows us to see the role of agriculture in the settlement changes of the period.In the final chapter I firstly present a discussion in order to create a theoretical framework for the changes on settlement systems. In this part I discuss the policies used by Middle Assyrian in each region and the reasons behind certain decisions on changing the settlement patterns of an area. The last part of the chapter contains the conclusions and results of the research. The purpose of this MA thesis is to recreate certain aspects of the transitions from the Mitanni Empire to the Middle Assyrian Empire with main focus on the changes of settlement patterns.Show less
