Dutch colonial history and its past with slavery is a contentious topic in the Netherlands. A problem in the national debate is the general lack of knowledge about the Dutch exploits. In this...Show moreDutch colonial history and its past with slavery is a contentious topic in the Netherlands. A problem in the national debate is the general lack of knowledge about the Dutch exploits. In this thesis, I examine the possibility for research into the often forgotten Zeelandic colony of Essequibo, through the use of historical archaeology. Historical archaeology is a subfield of archaeology, created to examine the development of the modern world. Since the 1990s, it has shifted to become a critical subfield, challenging traditional historical narratives and exploring systems and structures from a bottom-up perspective. In the Caribbean, this subfield has been used successfully to understand the role and agency of enslaved Africans at the Galways plantation in Montserrat, by surveying and excavating the plantation through close collaboration with the descendants and local inhabitants. In St. Eustatius, another form of historical archaeology is used to map and document the many colonial buildings on the island, through careful and critical use of its limited historical documentation. These case studies provide useful information on how historical archaeology can be used to investigate the Essequibo colony in Guyana. Essequibo, like St. Eustatius, was a Dutch colony that, through its governmental structure and capture by the British, does not provide a lot of historical documentation. Historical archaeology can therefore be used to fill this gap of knowledge, while simultaneously offering a broader perspective on Dutch colonialism and slavery in this forgotten and neglected colony.Show less
This study investigates the current state of archaeological research performed on the mummified human remains of the Nazca culture in Peru. At the time of writing, there is a lack in the archiving...Show moreThis study investigates the current state of archaeological research performed on the mummified human remains of the Nazca culture in Peru. At the time of writing, there is a lack in the archiving of archaeological research of the Nazca mummified remains as well as the datedness of the used research techniques. To improve the research on mummified human remains in the Nazca region, a bioarcheological comparison of research techniques is carried out between the Nazca region and the arid regions most similar to Nazca, in this case the regions of China and the Nile. A database was created with the research techniques utilized in the Nazca, China and Nile region. After comparing the different research techniques utilized in the different regions, the study concludes that eleven research techniques are not used in the Nazca region. Of these research techniques seven are suitable for future research on site. The findings of this study demonstrate that there is potential for the creation of a database for archiving reports of the mummified human remains and corresponding research techniques, as well as the utilization of newer and more modern research techniques. Both are expected to have a positive impact on the research of mummified human remains in Nazca. This research can be used as a guideline for future archaeological research on the Nazca human mummified remains.Show less
Decorated ceramics in Chontales, Nicaragua, have long stood within a research framework that centered their existence. However, up until the 1990s the biased approach to decorated ceramics...Show moreDecorated ceramics in Chontales, Nicaragua, have long stood within a research framework that centered their existence. However, up until the 1990s the biased approach to decorated ceramics emphasized macro-regional interaction without establishing a framework for local dynamics in Chontales. Without a local historical understanding, the ceramics solely became a part of a trend in narratives of cultural belonging and ethnic movement in Nicaraguan archaeology at large. As more recent approaches center on local human-environment interaction in the valley of Juigalpa, I have taken a similar approach in this thesis to reframe white slipped polychrome ceramics as a proxy for the regional exchange of ideas and finished goods. Here, I confirm the existence of (inter-)regional trade in finished goods in the form of white slipped polychrome ceramic vessels. Through a macroscopical and petrographic compositional approach, I analyze, and group 274 white slipped polychrome ceramics from the sites of Sabana Grande, Roberto Amador I and La Pachona. All three sites are in the valley of Juigalpa and have been dated to the period between 900 - 125o CE. Further interpretation through the criterion of abundance, communities and constellations of practice, and comparison to previous studies, allowed me to establish the presence of a local community of potters that produced white slipped polychrome ceramics in the valley of Juigalpa. This community is likely located within the Sabana Grande site cluster, and produced ceramics that make up about half of the white slipped polychrome ceramics recorded in the region. The ceramics are stylistically and compositionally most like the Pacific Nicaraguan Papagayo style. Non-local communities produced Vallejo, Pataky and Rivas-Ometepe complex polychrome styles that were traded into the valley of Juigalpa, inspiring the local potters and tying them into polychrome producing constellations.Show less
In the last decades, a revolution has taken place regarding the role of the museum within our modern society. As a result, an increasing number of indigenous communities are becoming aware of their...Show moreIn the last decades, a revolution has taken place regarding the role of the museum within our modern society. As a result, an increasing number of indigenous communities are becoming aware of their material representation in museums and inaccuracies therein. In reaction, the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford decided to retrieve their ten tsantsas, or ‘shrunken heads’ from their museum display. After the removal, reactions on (social) media blew up with many comments criticising the museum’s judgements. This thesis has analysed comments from different (social) media platforms and specifically focussed on their sentiments. In doing so it has employed the Bull’s Eye Model, created to look at the sender, message and receiver within communication systems. This thesis has been observing the way popular culture has influenced the presentation of the Shuar culture and tsantsa ritual. A rubric has been designed that analysed the presentation and misinformation presented in films, novels, and games. Lastly, the original documentation of the tsantsas by their collectors has been analysed in comparison to accounts from present day Shuar. The decolonisation processes within museums like the Pitt Rivers shed light on a vital change within the museum world and the close collaboration with indigenous communities will prove to create better informed exhibitions and transfer of knowledge.Show less
Following the discovery of the similarities between the Mesoamerican sites of Tula, Hidalgo and Chichén Itzá, Yucatan, in the late 1800’s, their connection has been the subject of extensive...Show moreFollowing the discovery of the similarities between the Mesoamerican sites of Tula, Hidalgo and Chichén Itzá, Yucatan, in the late 1800’s, their connection has been the subject of extensive academic debate. Recently, the Epiclassic centre of Tula Chico, the smaller plaza north of Tula Grande, has started to play a role in this discussion, most notably through the comparison of the sculpted reliefs recovered from the largely unexcavated structures. A lack of systematic description and interpretation of these elements, however, has resulted in the eye of the beholder problem. This research attempts to resolve this issue through the development of a clearly defined methodology based on earlier proposed models, adapted to fit a Mesoamerican narrative. After a brief overview of both sites and the proposed theories on their connection since the 1800’s, the proposed methodology was tested. Following Erwin Panofsky’s approach, while supplementing the required historical context with Lindsay Jones’ ritual architectural priorities, the methodology relies on the context where the sculpted relief was found, its iconographic description, and iconological interpretation. In testing, comparable images from Tula Chico and Chichén Itzá were meticulously evaluated to identify their function and meaning, after which comparison between them was possible. From this analysis, the possibility of contact between Tula Chico and Chichén Itzá can be suggested. The sites share sculptural elements with similar function that do not appear in Tula Grande. Additionally, the possibility of a warrior cult at Tula chico has become evident, mainly through the depiction of jaguars and eagles in its monumental architecture. More extensive research of Tula Chico’s structures is required to strengthen this interpretation, however. It is concluded that the proposed methodology is successful in its application to Mesoamerican contexts, and is capable of producing meaningful comparisons between sites that could benefit archaeological research going forward.Show less
Humans have been modifying landscapes in the southwestern Amazon for 10 000 years. Yet this modification did not comprise the intensive horticultural activities generally defined as ‘agriculture’...Show moreHumans have been modifying landscapes in the southwestern Amazon for 10 000 years. Yet this modification did not comprise the intensive horticultural activities generally defined as ‘agriculture’ within archaeological discourses. Instead of pursuing plant species’ domestication, local communities prioritised mixed-resource economies, in situ cultivation, and intentional biodiversity. These subtle but complex practices left a marked footprint on Amazonian soils, tree distributions, and biodiversity patterns. This thesis brings together palaeoenvironmental evidence of this footprint, to paint a picture of how humans managed landscapes in southwest Amazonia in the early and middle Holocene. It then approaches this ecological and archaeological data using anthropological theory and ethnographic evidence; these disciplines can (a) clarify the visibility of human-plant interactions in the eco-archaeological record, and (b) aid in interpreting what this record signifies about past lifeways. This transdisciplinary approach acknowledges the importance of considering cosmology when studying human-plant interactions, and how they can manifest materially. Human-nonhuman reciprocity is a prominent principle in many contemporary Amazonian ontologies, and is used in this thesis as a central paradigm for studying human ecological manipulations through time. Where conventional archaeological models of agriculture emphasise the central role of landscape domestication, the evidence from southwest Amazonia indicates that human horticultural activities comprised a process of active landscape co-creation. This thesis thus emphasises the need to rethink how we study human-plant interactions in archaeology, with critical implications for how we understand ‘agriculture’ as a whole – in Amazonia and elsewhere.Show less
The term “Latin America” is used as the common denominator that encompasses a large region with several countries whose traditions, language, and colonial background share a set of common...Show moreThe term “Latin America” is used as the common denominator that encompasses a large region with several countries whose traditions, language, and colonial background share a set of common characteristics. The paper explores the meaning of Latin American archaeology through the examples of Peruvian and Argentinian national archaeologies—the historical development of both countries and their respective archaeologies from the Colonial period to the present. The countries are first analyzed separately with a focus on their socioeconomic status and the influx of foreign theoretical trends and their impact on the development of archaeology within the context of colonialism and post-colonialism. At the beginning of the twentieth century the focus shifts on onto the “functioning” of archaeology through its legislative frameworks, university training programmes, and public archaeology. These elements are used to compare the archaeologies of Peru and Argentina to reveal their characteristic, and potentially the way in which colonialism and subsequent historical events pushed the development of archaeology. Four cases are presented with the intention of providing insight into how the theory is applied in practice. It was concluded that the pre-colonial history of the countries and their subsequent treatment significantly impacted the development of two markedly different national archaeologies who appear similar in theory but diverge in practice—when the current situation of archaeological practice and the most rudimentary elements keeping “Latin America” together are put into perspective, the archaeologies of the two countries appear to have less in common than they do at first glance.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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The UNESCO World Heritage List is both growing in popularity and gaining criticism in the heritage discourse. Where a place on the list can lead to economic benefit for communities and more...Show moreThe UNESCO World Heritage List is both growing in popularity and gaining criticism in the heritage discourse. Where a place on the list can lead to economic benefit for communities and more adequate protection of heritage, problems can be found in a geographical bias of inscribed sites, preference of monumental heritage and promotion of national importance at the expense of local values. In Nicaragua there are problems concerning heritage in the sense that there is a cultural bias present that favours colonial heritage over pre-Hispanic heritage. Moreover, apart from the Pacific zone, hardly any heritage research has taken place in the country so far. In order to conquer some of these global and national problems and due to its archaeological significance, this thesis aims research the possibilities for a potential World Heritage Nomination for the pre-Hispanic site of Aguas Buenas, Chontales, Nicaragua. This site consists of 372 mounds that are spatially organized in a particular geometrical formation, accompanied by at least 150 petroglyphs. In order to answer the main question: “Does the pre-Hispanic site of Aguas Buenas, Chontales, Nicaragua have potential to be included in UNESCO’s World Heritage List?”, extensive literature research was carried out, accompanied by field work in the form of mapping and ethnographic interviewing. In this thesis, a landscape description is carried out and a preservation analysis is undertaken. It is also researched if Aguas Buenas adheres to UNESCO’s criteria for becoming World Heritage. Lastly, a stakeholder analysis and assessment is carried. The results provided in this thesis show that in terms of archaeological qualities there is a strong argument for a World Heritage inscription of Aguas Buenas. In addition, none of the stakeholders is by definition against a nomination and the majority of the people living in and around the site have expressed an interest in being involved in a potential heritage designation. However, due to the governmental dynamics of the country concerning archaeological heritage in the Chontales Province, there is no guarantee for an adequate protection and management of the property in practice, which is required by UNESCO. Therefore, even though the site is archaeologically significant enough for a nomination, problematics concerning governmental interests need to be solved first. A first step in solving these problematics can be found in offering information requested by the stakeholders and also showing people in Nicaragua on both a national and local scale the importance Aguas Buenas as both an archaeological site and a rural community can have for them.Show less
Dit onderzoek behandelt de stijlverschillen tussen jade bat winged pendanten uit verschillende cultuurgebieden en periodes van zuidelijk Centraal-Amerika. De nadruk ligt op Costa Rica, veruit de...Show moreDit onderzoek behandelt de stijlverschillen tussen jade bat winged pendanten uit verschillende cultuurgebieden en periodes van zuidelijk Centraal-Amerika. De nadruk ligt op Costa Rica, veruit de grootste vindplaats van deze objecten. Vele zijn helaas buiten officiële opgravingen om door lokale bewoners gevonden. De archeologische context ontbreekt zodoende doorgaans, waardoor nauwkeurig dateren van pendanten en het opstellen van een chronologie praktisch onmogelijk is. Verder zijn in zuidelijk Centraal-Amerika weinig jade pendanten gevonden; slechts enkele in Panama en Colombia (wellicht door de lokale voorkeur voor goudproductie), geen in Nicaragua. Mogelijk zijn veel pendanten nog onontdekt of in particulier bezit. Noodgedwongen zijn de conclusies in dit onderzoek daarom gebaseerd op literatuuronderzoek en een beperkte dataset van 78 pendanten. Een uitgebreidere statistische analyse is vooralsnog onmogelijk.Show less
In deze scriptie staat de volgende onderzoeksvraag centraal: 'Wat is de culturele biografie van cenotes op Yucatán vanaf 11.000 voor Christus?'. Voorafgaand aan dit onderzoek worden de technieken...Show moreIn deze scriptie staat de volgende onderzoeksvraag centraal: 'Wat is de culturele biografie van cenotes op Yucatán vanaf 11.000 voor Christus?'. Voorafgaand aan dit onderzoek worden de technieken voor het conserveren, duiken en documenteren kritisch onderzocht. De culturele biografie wordt opgedeeld in vier elementen. De eerste periode loopt vanaf de Paleo-Indiaanse periode tot het einde van de Archaïsche periode (>2000 voor Christus). Om het cenote gebruik en de perceptie van de cenotes te bepalen in deze periode wordt gekeken naar de vondsten in Hoyo Negro. De tweede periode die onderzocht wordt is de Maya periode. Deze bestaat uit de Preklassieke, Klassieke en Postklassieke periode. Er zijn hiervoor een aantal verschillende sites onderzocht om het grottengebruik en de perceptie te kunnen bepalen. Op deze sites (Holtún, San Antonio, Canún en El Cenote Sagrado) zijn aanwijzingen gevonden voor een veranderend gebruik gedurende de gehele Maya periode. Zo zijn er vondsten gedaan die wijzen op het uitvoeren van offerrituelen (El Cenote Sagrado), maar ook inhumaties en andere soorten rituelen en ceremonies. Daarnaast zijn de cenotes waarschijnlijk als waterbron gebruikt. Van het gebruik als waterbron zijn er ook bewijzen uit de Koloniale periode gevonden. Dit is het derde onderdeel van deze culturele biografie. Naast het gebruik als zoetwaterbron zijn er ook bewijzen voor een continuïteit van bepaalde rituelen, al komen deze in mindere mate voor dan in de Precolumbiaanse tijd. Het vierde element in de culturele biografie is de Moderne periode. De perceptie en het gebruik van de cenotes is in deze periode deels veranderd, al worden de cenotes nog steeds als waterbron gebruikt. Daarnaast is het een grote inkomstenbron geworden voor de lokale bevolking. Het toerisme in het gebied neemt toe wat grote effecten heeft op de cenotes.Show less
Gedurende de Terminaal Klassieke Periode (800-1000 na Chr.) worden er in de zuidelijke laaglanden van het Mayagebied geen monumenten meer gebouwd en neemt de bevolking substantieel tot hevig af....Show moreGedurende de Terminaal Klassieke Periode (800-1000 na Chr.) worden er in de zuidelijke laaglanden van het Mayagebied geen monumenten meer gebouwd en neemt de bevolking substantieel tot hevig af. Deze gebeurtenis staat bekend als de "Classic Maya collapse". In deze scriptie wordt onderzoek gedaan naar wat de neergang van Copán in de Terminaal Klassieke Periode (800-1000 na Chr.) kenmerkt op het gebied van ecologie. Er wordt gekeken naar het klimaat, antropogene invloeden op het landschap van Copán en de gevolgen van deze invloeden ten tijde van de Terminaal Klassieke Periode en voor de eeuwen hiervoor om zo eventuele veranderingen vast te kunnen stellen. Het onderzoek heeft aangetoond dat het Terminaal Klassiek niet de eerste periode was waar hevige droogtes hebben opgetreden in de Mayaregio en er is bewijs aangetroffen tegen het plaatsvinden van grootschalige ontbossingen in Copán in 600-900 na Chr. wat het beeld van Copán als “typsite” voor ontbossing ontkracht. In 850 na Chr. was er hoogstwaarschijnlijk wel sprake van een overschrijding van de draagkracht van de Copán Vallei met als gevolg een mogelijk voedseltekort. De landbouwmethodes van de Maya’s hebben gezorgd voor hevige erosie en bodemuitputting in het Terminaal Klassiek. De Maya’s beschikten waarschijnlijk niet over middelen om deze processen en de overkoepelende droogte tegen te gaan. De neergang van Copán was waarschijnlijk het gevolg van een wisselwerking tussen ongunstige klimatologische omstandigheden en niet-toereikende landbouwtechnieken.Show less
This thesis is about the ceramics that were found during the field season excavation of May 2012 at the pre-Columbian site Aguas Buenas, Nicaragua, AD 400-1400. Aguas Buenas is situated in the...Show moreThis thesis is about the ceramics that were found during the field season excavation of May 2012 at the pre-Columbian site Aguas Buenas, Nicaragua, AD 400-1400. Aguas Buenas is situated in the Chontales province, Central Nicaragua, where there is not much archaeological research done. Linguistic and ethno historical research shows that the province was a cultural complex area in pre-Columbian times. Aguas Buenas is the largest known site in this province and so far only studies in surveys. The aim of the thesis is trying to say something about the identity of the people who build the site and regional interaction. During the field season of 2012 pottery was the most found material. The ceramics were studied using a modal analysis. The following modes were analysed: pot shape, lip shape, diameter of the pot, firing colour, colour, slip, decoration, and surface finishing. These results are compared with previous studies from Chontales and the Pacific region of Nicaragua.Show less
In the field season of May 2011, progress was made in documenting the petroglyphs found at Aguas Buenas, Nicaragua. This dataset serves as a backdrop onto which problems of rock art analysis and...Show moreIn the field season of May 2011, progress was made in documenting the petroglyphs found at Aguas Buenas, Nicaragua. This dataset serves as a backdrop onto which problems of rock art analysis and rock art documentation are placed. For the rock art analysis, several approaches are considered. First, the semiotic approach is looked at, through the use of theories constructed by Panofsky, Saussure and Pierce. Then, a contrasting way of looking at rock art is described, that also considers the landscape that these images are placed in. Both approaches have their merits and their weaknesses in application to the Aguas Buenas dataset. In the second half, documentation methods and techniques for petroglyphs are subjected to critical evaluation with the purpose of creating a method, that is easy, cost efficient and still provides a high quality. Photography has proven to fulfill these requirements, and instructions are given as to provide a handhold for (starting) rock art researchers to take accurate photographs of petroglyphs. Lastly, the database is explained and provided, and a comparison is made with other petroglyph datasets.Show less
In the 1970’s, Flannery established household archaeology as a legitimate subfield in archaeology with his book The Early Mesoamerican Village (1976). He implemented new scientific methods for...Show moreIn the 1970’s, Flannery established household archaeology as a legitimate subfield in archaeology with his book The Early Mesoamerican Village (1976). He implemented new scientific methods for analyzing past households. His ideas and methods had far-reaching impact on archaeological methodology, and would significantly change the field of household archaeology in Mesoamerica. His methods of excavation form the basis of every research on households in archaeology, regardless of its theoretical background. Not all his ideas stood the test of time, however, and in recent years there has been a growing range of research perspectives. Processual ideas about the universal, rationally explainable nature of human society have been increasingly criticized with the growing importance of social theory in archaeology. The focus of household archaeology shifted from the organization of daily life to the ideas, the symbolic dimension behind that organization. The different approaches have their flaws. The rational nature of human culture may be strongly relativized, and therefore it would be unproductive to study past societies from that perspective, since interpretations could be erroneous and we would miss out on a wide range of aspects of the cultures studied. However, there are so far no universally valid methods for studying symbolic aspects, memory and worldview in past societies. It is important that biological, behavioral and symbolic aspects of societies in their context all have a place in the investigation of households, so that a complete picture of past cultures may emerge. Perspectives on how societies work, and therefore on what the focus of research could and should be are evolving constantly with the developing of new techniques and perspectives in other fields of human sciences. Perhaps the most important thing in our research of past cultures is the meticulous registration of data and of our reasoning, theoretical perspectives and interpretations, so that further research can build on it in order to develop our knowledge of past societies.Show less
Ever since the world became aware of ancient Panamá’s archaeological remains, archaeologists have been fascinated by the intricate designs exhibited on its stones, ceramics, and gold work. This...Show moreEver since the world became aware of ancient Panamá’s archaeological remains, archaeologists have been fascinated by the intricate designs exhibited on its stones, ceramics, and gold work. This interest increased and formalised with the discovery of a rich graphic repertoire at Sitio Conte in the 1930s, and a subsequent rising concern with the worldview of Panamá's pre-contact population. The study of Central Panamanian iconography thus acquired growing importance. With the advancing significance of this subject, however, interpretations remained highly subjective, and in lack of a structured methodological approach. This situation has prompted the author to review the reasons underlying these shortcomings, a procedure that, in turn, has led to a contemplation of the cognitive origins of iconography. Building on the latter insights, the author proceeds to evaluate the effectiveness of typical approaches of iconographical inquiry, finding that none of the existing methods is sufficiently flexible, or scalable, for application to a pre-literate context. Consequently, a new, five-step methodology is contrived, which efficacy is tested by putting its first two stages into practice with reference to a case-study of Macaracas-style imagery. As such, this thesis does not just deal with the theoretical and methodological difficulties of doing iconographic research, but also highlights some interesting peculiarities of Central Panamanian imageries.Show less
