The city of Teotihuacan is located in central Mexico and is well known for its monumental lay-out and large pyramids. As is the case with most Mesoamerican cultures, the subject of human sacrifice...Show moreThe city of Teotihuacan is located in central Mexico and is well known for its monumental lay-out and large pyramids. As is the case with most Mesoamerican cultures, the subject of human sacrifice has played a large role in the research done into the site. This thesis first provides the reader with information about the site of Teotihuacan and the discussion about human sacrifice in the wider Mesoamerican region. The issues with colonial sources and definition will be discussed. What follows is a critical assessment of the evidence that has been put forth to support the existence of human sacrifice at Teotihuacan. This evidence is divided in two types: visual culture and human remains. The visual culture section focuses on two murals and the iconography of hearts. The human remains section focuses on the burial complexes of the Feathered Serpent Pyramid, Moon Pyramid and Sun Pyramid. The conclusion includes both a summary of the findings and a warning for possible biases in Mesoamerican archaeology.Show less
The Philippines is an archipelago with each Island developing slightly different as well as having a long history of foreign cultural influence. From the Chinese to the more religiously- inclined...Show moreThe Philippines is an archipelago with each Island developing slightly different as well as having a long history of foreign cultural influence. From the Chinese to the more religiously- inclined Hinduism and Islamic influence the Philippine culture is a mixture of traditions. The largest influences started from 1565 onward, since its colonisation by the Spanish. After years of conflict, the USA interfered and bought the Philippines in 1898 and slowly granted the Philippines independence. Many of the Indigenous Peoples survived, and much of the natural heritage is protected. Archaeological research is also conducted in the whole archipelago with various states of cooperation between the Peoples. However, the Indigenous way of life is constantly threatened in the Philippines and on the Island of Palawan alone there are many conflicts. The IPRA as well as several international conventions should have ensured that the right of the Indigenous Peoples are protected. There are, however, problems with the laws involved and internal governmental workings. However, there are a lot of organisations that work to correct these injustices locally, nationally and internationally, who want to ensure that the Indigenous Peoples are allowed their rights as well as have a place to continue expressing their culture. Archaeology as a whole is a working as a science to engage more with the communities they reside in and work on decolonising practices.Show less
It is important the connect visitors in the museum to past societies. Also, showing a story of the origin of civilizations in an area is a core piece of knowledge of an area. Thus, during this...Show moreIt is important the connect visitors in the museum to past societies. Also, showing a story of the origin of civilizations in an area is a core piece of knowledge of an area. Thus, during this thesis, the Olmec were found in ten different museums and the way that they were represented was analyzed. The goal was to see if the museum would represent the Olmec as a separate entity or as an integral part of Mesoamerican culture. Three natural history museums, in three parts of the United States of America, and seven exhibits in Europe, were analyzed. These museum exhibits were created between the 1970’s and 2008. They all mention the Olmec in their own way. However, they all fail to fully connect the Olmec to other ancient Mesoamerican cultures and to present indigenous populations. Part of this thesis also shows the accessibility of new resources on the Olmec. Thus, it is easy for curators to construct labels with accurate information for new exhibits once it is viable for museums to design new rooms. Few visitors that were interviewed in during this process knew where the Olmec objects were in the exhibit. What is even more serious is that some of these visitors were confused by the term Olmec. Another aspect of this research is the object that are in these museums. Their databases show that there has been very little done on the Olmec objects in their collections. Very few artifacts have specific provenances attached to them. The provenances that are attached to some of the objects are tenuous because of the age in which they were acquired by the museums. In researching these objects, the museum will be able to give a better overall picture of the true nature of these artifacts and maybe connect them to their true origins. In these museums, there are very few objects that were given to the museum after archaeological research begun on the Olmec. This thesis shows that some museums in the United States and Europe need to give a better overall picture of the Olmec. In doing so, these museums will give a better foundation to their stories on Mesoamerica and be able to tell a more complete story of the region.Show less
In this thesis, the focus lies on the practice of human sacrifice and cannibalism in Aztec culture, and how they are represented in the Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España and the...Show moreIn this thesis, the focus lies on the practice of human sacrifice and cannibalism in Aztec culture, and how they are represented in the Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España and the Primeros Memoriales. Both documents have been written by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, in sixteenth-century New Spain. The Historia General is one of the most cited works in the practice of archaeology and anthropology, regarding human sacrifice and cannibalism in the Aztec world. In general, the Historia General is cited in academic literature without any form of critical comment. By analyzing the first and second book of the Historia General and the Primeros Memoriales, and looking at the motivations behind these two colonial documents, it becomes clear that the Historia General is by no means an objective source of information, and uses human sacrifice and cannibalism as a colonial tool, in order to promote colonialism, the conquest of New Spain, the spread of evangelization and the eradication of the Aztec religion. Therefore, archaeologists and anthropologists should be cautious and critical when using the Historia General in their research on human sacrifice and cannibalism, and base their research on empirical data, for the most part. In doing so, the critical assessment of colonial works such as the Historia General, will lead to a decolonization of the practice of archaeology and anthropology.Show less
This thesis presents the analysis of two major sources on the Spanish conquest of the Aztec realm (1521): the second letter written by Hernán Cortés, directed to the Spanish king Charles V, and the...Show moreThis thesis presents the analysis of two major sources on the Spanish conquest of the Aztec realm (1521): the second letter written by Hernán Cortés, directed to the Spanish king Charles V, and the final book of the work of friar Bernardino de Sahagún (the Florentine Codex). The research aims to find out in what measure these texts may be considered as reliable historical reports. The first part of the thesis contains the analysis of the second letter of Cortés, trying to separate facts from propaganda. The second part analyses the pictures that accompany the text of the Florentine Codex, focusing on the material culture of the time. The main question here is whether the armour and weaponry depicted in these images were in fact used in the time of the conquest, were copied from earlier images or represent weapons observed at the time the book was written. In addition the thesis pays attention to the origin and impact of the ‘Black Legend’, which had a determining influence on the opinions about the Conquest in many Western European countries.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
closed access
This study aims to investigate how evidence from human dentition contributes to the knowledge of cultural practices of the Prehispanic indigenous society of Monte Albán, Oaxaca, Mexico. As such, it...Show moreThis study aims to investigate how evidence from human dentition contributes to the knowledge of cultural practices of the Prehispanic indigenous society of Monte Albán, Oaxaca, Mexico. As such, it focusses on the expression of gender through the analysis of dental modifications. The study is twofold, as it focusses on the one hand on the dental modifications of the individuals found in the archaeological record of the city of Monte Albán, while on the other hand, it deals with the theoretical struggle to relate the biological body to socio-theoretical understanding of gender and the expression of this concept. A theoretical standpoint is chosen where the body is seen as a material culture, and changes to the body – temporal and permanent – are made to express certain cultural values, such as gender. It is assumed that the concepts of sex and gender are related, but not equal. Statistical analysis is conducted to test if there is a difference in the use of dental modifications between men and women, and the exploration of ethnohistorical sources dating from the Colonial period, are used to interpret these results. This exploratory data analysis has established that dental modifications in the skeletal assemblage of Monte Albán is indicative of different gendered identities, however future research is necessary to understand the full extent of the expression of gender through dental modifications discovered in the archaeological record of Monte Albán, and several propositions are made to aid this future research.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
Pre-colonial Mixtec codices vividly and colourfully tell about the history and religion of Mixtec polities and have, since the beginning of the 20th century, attracted the interest of many scholars...Show morePre-colonial Mixtec codices vividly and colourfully tell about the history and religion of Mixtec polities and have, since the beginning of the 20th century, attracted the interest of many scholars. Indeed, these historical narratives provide a unique window into ancient Mesoamerican concepts of time, history, drama, worldview and memory. Incorporated in these codices are numerous auditive scenes: events in the story line in which musical behaviour plays an important role. The present thesis examines these scenes, aiming to get a more comprehensive and arguably more full-fledged understanding of musical behaviour in pre-colonial Mixtec society. Since musical behaviour plays an important role in the formation of personal as well as social identities, research into musical behaviour of past cultures can contribute significantly to the knowledge about the worldviews of these cultures. Mixtec codices provide excellent means for this, since the stories in these manuscripts not only tell about individual actions and events in a certain time period, but also include important information about how these events related to a wider, socio-cultural context. By means of a novel, comprehensive approach, consisting of an adapted variant of the Critical Discourse Analysis methodology, this thesis analyses auditive scenes from five Mixtec codices: the Codex Bodley, Codex Colombino-Becker I, Codex Selden, Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus I & Codex Zouche-Nuttall. As such, this thesis examines the role of musical behaviour contained in auditive scenes of pre-colonial Mixtec codices on the levels of the text, their conveyance and their socio-cultural context. The results of these analyses show that musical behaviour played an important role in codices at a variety of levels. Indeed, this thesis shows that, on the basis of a bi-directional relationship, textual analyses of auditive scenes in Mixtec codices can provide important tools for understanding the role musical behaviour played vis-à-vis socio-cultural and ideological dynamics. The oral performance (discursive practice) through which the codices’ stories were reproduced, distributed and consumed was the binding element between the codices’ text and the socio-cultural context. On the basis of these findings, recommendations for further research are provided.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
The Historia General de las cosas de Nueva España is a 16th Century colonial document written in New Spain (modern-day Mexico). It describes many aspects of the lives of indigenous people that...Show moreThe Historia General de las cosas de Nueva España is a 16th Century colonial document written in New Spain (modern-day Mexico). It describes many aspects of the lives of indigenous people that lived in Central Mexico called the Mexica-Nahua. The descriptions are of such detail that they are often a primary source for archaeologists to correlate their material data with. However, this is often done without questioning the validity of the data or putting the conditions of 16th Century Mexico in a proper context. The rituals described in this document have a particular violent character, giving much attention to human sacrifices that were made to indigenous deities. However, these rituals were not witnessed first-hand by its author, Bernardino de Sahagún. The largest ceremonial structure built by the Mexica-Nahua was what is now called the Templo Mayor. This was a large pyramid that stood in the centre of the Capital that lies under modern-day Mexico City. There have been many publications about this temple that contain interpretations of the rituals that were performed here. Many of these interpretations come from a literal interpretation of the Historia General. This interpretation affects the manner in which the precolonial past is represented by archaeologists. These archaeologists put their object of analysis into a context that is subsequently shaped by these same scholars to conform to an already existing representation of the precolonial past. Ethnographic fieldwork shows that the ritual experience of the practitioners is not fully analysed by these archaeologists. This is however salient in the reconstruction of past rituals because these can often be analysed according to frameworks that do not concern themselves with the practitioner, but more with the organizational context in relation to e.g. a centralized state. The literary analysis of the Historia General, the critical evaluation of ritual reconstructions at the Templo Mayor, and the incorporation of ethnography show that the violent picture scholars and the general public have of precolonial Mexica-Nahua society is largely based on a distorted view that results from a lack of proper contextualization as opposed to hard evidence.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
This thesis presents an iconographic study of Classic Maya ceramics. Pictorial polychrome pottery is the primary source of Classic Maya painting that is left to us. In the sixth century we find the...Show moreThis thesis presents an iconographic study of Classic Maya ceramics. Pictorial polychrome pottery is the primary source of Classic Maya painting that is left to us. In the sixth century we find the appearance of unique painting styles, the establishment of elite workshops and works that were so exceptional that they could be linked to specific painters. The painters of these vessels were among the most highly educated people in Maya society. They were educated in Maya history, science, ideology and cosmology and they also learned how to read and write. The elite painted pottery is therefore a fine source to get more information about Maya mythology. By an iconographical study of the Maya ceramic vessels it is determined which scenes from the mythological tale of the Popol Vuh are displayed on the images of the vessels. The Popol Vuh is the creation story of the Maya. The document was written down sometime between 1554 and 1558, by authors that stayed anonymous. It is commonly believed that the story of the Popol Vuh was actually much older and might once have been written in codex form. The Popol Vuh is the most significant source on ancient Maya mythology that survives today. The iconographical research is restricted to the heroic deeds of the Hero Twins, Junajpu and Xb’alanq’e. With the help of the previously identified characteristics of the Hero Twins, these characters are searched on all the available ceramics in the online Maya Vase Database, created by Justin Kerr. By an intense study into the ways that the Hero Twins are displayed on Maya ceramics many stories from the Popol Vuh have been identified. Some represented scenes proved to have been displayed on numerous vessels. Other scenes proved the be less important and were only portrayed sporadically. Multiple scene from the Popol Vuh were not portrayed at all suggesting that these stories were altered or added at a later time.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
This thesis focuses on the interpretation of pages 29 to 46 of the Codex Borgia. This sequence of pages is unique in the corpus of Mexican manuscripts, and it contain very complex imagery. Because...Show moreThis thesis focuses on the interpretation of pages 29 to 46 of the Codex Borgia. This sequence of pages is unique in the corpus of Mexican manuscripts, and it contain very complex imagery. Because of this, these pages have been the centre of many interpretation efforts for already more than a decade. To this day no consensus has been reached about the meaning of the pages. To aid in this matter, this thesis contains three aims: (1) to give an overview of the interpretations made thus far, (2) to identify the specific problems in the interpretation process in order to recommend future lines of research, and (3) to expand upon the knowledge of the imagery through a structural analysis of them from the perspective of narratology. First, an overview of eight interpretations has been created. Secondly, these interpretations have been evaluated on the basis of the analogies that have been drawn in order to identify the problems in the interpretation process. Third and lastly, the narratological aspects time, space, events, actors, and focalization have been selected to analyse the structure (and thereby function) of the pages. It is concluded that that the pages represent various separate rituals in a ceremonial centre, and that the pages are of some kind of descriptive or prescriptive nature. It is very likely that the pages were used as a sort of guide for a variety rituals performed by a group of priests that was closely related to a Temple of Dark Wind, and in which hallucinations play a role.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
Perception of time is a constituting pillar in the Maya worldview. The Maya calendar system, which has been in use for thousands of years, however, is currently under threat by a variety of...Show morePerception of time is a constituting pillar in the Maya worldview. The Maya calendar system, which has been in use for thousands of years, however, is currently under threat by a variety of developments. This research master thesis focuses on the contemporary practices and beliefs related to the Maya calendar in Mexican and Guatemalan Maya communities by analyzing ethnographies published between 1889 and 1982. The aims are firstly to analyze the forms in which the traditional time perception has continued over time, and secondly to examine how changes in the field of Maya research have affected the specific ethnographic investigations on the Maya calendar. The main part of this thesis includes a literature study on three entangled topics which all have influenced how scholars currently look at the Maya calendar. Firstly, a synthesis of the different ethnographic works is provided, in which the different forms of Maya calendar systems in Mexico and Guatemala are discussed. The Maya calendar has played an important role in Maya archaeology and anthropology. This thesis provides the first overview of ethnographic research since a doubtful publication dating from 1952. The goal of synthesizing the ethnographies is to provide new insights in the variety of contemporary practices and beliefs related to time among the Maya. Secondly, based on this inventory, this thesis examines the changing ethnographic approaches towards this topic. By examining the assumptions, interpretations and approaches in the light of their time, it becomes clear how we have come to our current view on the Maya calendar system. Thirdly, this thesis looks into cultural continuity and how rituals contribute to the continuation of calendar systems and their related worldviews. Due to the decreasingly traditional way of life, more research into this topic is very much needed. Additional to the literature research and a small-scale ethnographic fieldwork has been performed among the Yucatec Maya of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, focusing on the perception of time based on environmental observations and related rituals. The empirical data that were collected during this fieldwork are presented in the final part of this thesis.Show less
For over 150 years the developments in the Terminal Classic period in the Maya lowlands are studied. There is still no general consensus on the reason of the decline in the southern part and the...Show moreFor over 150 years the developments in the Terminal Classic period in the Maya lowlands are studied. There is still no general consensus on the reason of the decline in the southern part and the transformation in the northern part. The once accepted “collapse” of the Classic Maya civilization is now only argued for by few. The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands is perceived as a period of grave changes, transitions, transformations and continuity. Few settlements did experience abrupt total collapse. There is a large variety of causes that are argued to be of influence to the decline. Assessing the contemporary discussion, several key issues arise. There is no consensus on what terms should be used to describe these events as well as the relativity of labeling short and long scale developments is under discussion. Finally the very essence of what is studied here, is human behaviour. The reaction of the Classic Maya to changing situations or resilience, whether in the socio-political system or to climate changes, is paramount in the study of the Terminal Classic.Show less
Nahualisme, een belangrijk element in de Meso-Amerikaanse religie, is een heterogeen fenomeen. Het heeft verschillende betekenissen en namen in verschillende culturen en regio’s in heel Meso...Show moreNahualisme, een belangrijk element in de Meso-Amerikaanse religie, is een heterogeen fenomeen. Het heeft verschillende betekenissen en namen in verschillende culturen en regio’s in heel Meso-Amerika. Vaak wordt de Nahual gezien als iemands alter ego, een nevenwezen, waarmee het contact plaatsvindt in dromen. Er zijn ook mensen die in hun Nahual kunnen veranderen. Bij Nahualisme is er een nauwe relatie en zelfs identificatie tussen mensen en dieren/natuurlijke elementen. Dit maakt dat de Nahual als onderdeel van de persoon, de ‘zelf’, kan worden gezien, wat het een aspect van ‘personhood’ maakt. Vandaag de dag komt Nahualisme nog altijd voor, hoewel veranderd door westerse wereldvisies en verschijnselen als syncretisme. In hoeverre het Nahualisme nog gelijk is aan de prekoloniale versie is onduidelijk, maar door archeologisch bewijs en koloniale bronnen kunnen we er zeker van zijn dat het een prekoloniaal concept is. In de koloniale tijd werd Nahualisme over het algemeen als iets duivels, hekserij, gezien. Dit beeld is hedendaags nog steeds van invloed. Nahualisme speelt niet alleen binnen de Meso-Amerikaanse religie, maar ook binnen de ideeën over ziekte en gezondheid. Mens en Nahual delen hetzelfde lot, wat maakt dat wanneer iets met de één gebeurd, dit ook het geval is bij de ander. Mensen kunnen van zowel hun eigen Nahual als die van een ander (een vijand) ziek worden. Per cultuur zijn er verschillende rituelen en gebruiken om een persoon en zijn Nahual weer beter te maken, zoals bijvoorbeeld het uitvoeren van een limpia (een reiniging).Show less
When Sahagún came to New Spain he encountered the indigenous population who were in the process of converting to Christianity. He arrived with a group of fellow Franciscan friars with the mission...Show moreWhen Sahagún came to New Spain he encountered the indigenous population who were in the process of converting to Christianity. He arrived with a group of fellow Franciscan friars with the mission to establish a new Christian utopia where a thousand year peace would reign. Sahagún was ordered to write down all that he could find about Nahua culture which resulted in the Historia general. In this manuscript there are various rituals and deities described in full detail and they are said to be idolatrous. Sahagún would take his students from his college in Tlatelolco and gather pictographic information from Tepepulco in order to copy it into the Primeros Memoriales. In this manuscript it is clear that European elements are incorporated in pre-colonial drawings. The Nahua population proved difficult in adopting the Christian faith and kept holding on to traditional beliefs, often mixing old rituals with Christian rituals. This was something Sahagún became upset about, knowing that the traditional rituals were actually in honour of Satan and his demons that needed to be combated. When Sahagún reached old age he was of strong conviction that the mission to establish the utopia had failed and he suggested that Christianity should move on to other parts of the world where conversion would be more successful.Show less
This study is a critical examination of four prominent Teotihuacan figures that are commonly interpreted as deities (Paulinyi 2006). This study evaluates the interpretations and shows that these...Show moreThis study is a critical examination of four prominent Teotihuacan figures that are commonly interpreted as deities (Paulinyi 2006). This study evaluates the interpretations and shows that these interpretations are not well supported. Additionally, possible alternative interpretations are proposed that show these figures might just as well be interpreted differently. It is discussed how the figures may be interpreted as rulers, ancestors or both. This discussion shows these alternative interpretations are for three of the four figures quite plausible. The outcome of this study is relevant in respect to the perception of the nature of Teotihuacan, since Teotihuacan art is generally considered as impersonal, with no depictions of individuals.Show less
Ritual speech is one of the most complex forms of language. It is full of metaphors and complicated phases, in most cases possible to use and understand only by insiders. Moreover, the relevant...Show moreRitual speech is one of the most complex forms of language. It is full of metaphors and complicated phases, in most cases possible to use and understand only by insiders. Moreover, the relevant context, usually of ritual performance has to be provided in order for the incantations to be effective. This paper analysis the context and metaphors in the religious language used by the ritual specialists in 17th century Mesoamerica based on the Treatise by Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón. The complexity of the metaphors used in the spells allows only for one group to be examined. Therefore, the metaphors recognised as calendrical names are examined through systematic analysis. Furthermore, the comparison with the day signs, plates 9-13 of the Borgia Codex, is made in order to investigate the extend of parallel meaning. As a result, the analysis enhances better understanding of the ritual speech-nahuallatolli as well as religious world view of the 17th century Mesoamerican people.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
This research involves the Moche full bodied portrait vessels. The Moche flourished from 100 till 800 AD and all that was left of the Moche society was their material culture. Today it is generally...Show moreThis research involves the Moche full bodied portrait vessels. The Moche flourished from 100 till 800 AD and all that was left of the Moche society was their material culture. Today it is generally accepted that ceramic was the Moche language. The main research question focuses on the function and meaning of these artefacts. What was their place in the Moche culture? A study is made of social meaning, social biography and of the different statements an object can give. Objects function as memory, they tell stories and are used to remember certain occasions or activities. Furthermore, instead of using expensive tests here a descriptive approach, in combination with statistical analyses, was used to understand the function of these objects. The form and function of these vessels is connected, but the exact role of the portrait vessels is not known. It is clear that they played an important role in the life of the Moche society and were almost certainly connected with the ceremonial sacrifice. This is assumed based on the characteristics of the people modelled on the vessels. Using statistical analyses will help to understand the relation between depictions and form and will also give ideas about how and wherefore these vessels were used. Based on the different analyses a decision tree learning model was made, creating the possibility to define and understand the different categories of Moche full bodied portrait vessels.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
The majority of studies of the Greater Nicoya area of Pacific Nicaragua and Costa Rica have relied heavily upon the assumption that large-scale Mesoamerican migrations took place sometime in the...Show moreThe majority of studies of the Greater Nicoya area of Pacific Nicaragua and Costa Rica have relied heavily upon the assumption that large-scale Mesoamerican migrations took place sometime in the Postclassic period, resulting in the similarity between some styles of pottery and iconography between the two regions. Recently, studies have shown that there is little archaeological evidence to link the two areas, besides the ethnohistorical data and the appearance of the aforementioned iconography. This study examines one of those icons, the quintessentially Mesoamerican figure of Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, in order to look for evidence that might support either side of the debate.Show less
