Sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) perpetrated by UN peacekeepers has been a pressing issue since the 1990s. Throughout the years, the UN has been scrutinized for contributing to a culture of...Show moreSexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) perpetrated by UN peacekeepers has been a pressing issue since the 1990s. Throughout the years, the UN has been scrutinized for contributing to a culture of impunity, in which cases of SEA are not appropriately reported and investigated, and in which perpetrators do not receive adequate penalties. In 2017, Secretary-General Antonio Guterres proposed a “New Approach” that provided measures aimed at enhancing criminal accountability through strengthening reporting, investigation, and follow-up. The purpose of this paper is to explore whether the “New Approach” has been successful in effectively setting an end to impunity of peacekeepers. Taking on a qualitative exploratory methodological approach, the puzzle is answered by analyzing the contents of the “New Approach”, and by comparing whether the proclaimed measures for enhancing accountability have been implemented in practice before 2018 and from 2018 on. I find that the “New Approach” is inherently flawed. While some provisions have been implemented that enhance criminal accountability, shortcomings in the reporting and investigation mechanisms remain. Especially, however, there are fundamental flaws in the prosecution mechanisms of substantiated SEA cases, as there are jurisdictional gaps within the UN system. These lead to an impossibility of achieving criminal accountability for all perpetrators. Thus, the ”New Approach” was ineffective in ending impunity of peacekeepers that commit SEA.Show less
This study provides an outlook on corporate alignment with the UNGPs regarding the implementation of human rights policy commitments, due diligence processes, and grievance mechanisms. This is done...Show moreThis study provides an outlook on corporate alignment with the UNGPs regarding the implementation of human rights policy commitments, due diligence processes, and grievance mechanisms. This is done by introducing the current debate regarding the impact of soft law instruments such as the UNGPs. Further, a theoretical framework is established, providing a conceptualisation, methodology, and justification for the variables used in this study. Then, an extensive analysis is exposed, explaining the principles stipulated in the UN Framework, along with the Corporate Human Rights Benchmark (CHRB) criteria, and applying those to the case of INDITEX (Industria de Diseño Textil, S.A.). Finally, the conclusion answers the research question, by referencing the results and proposes new insights for future research.Show less
Ever since various IPCC reports have shown the impact and consequences of human action on the climate, an increasing number of policymakers start to realize the urgency of altering the way humans...Show moreEver since various IPCC reports have shown the impact and consequences of human action on the climate, an increasing number of policymakers start to realize the urgency of altering the way humans deal with it. Consequently, climate policies have emerged in the European political realm aimed at mitigating climate change. However, Europe has seen a recent rise of farmer protest movements that oppose these climate policies. Often labelled as being ‘anti-climate’, these protest movements seem to have deeper underlying causes. Policy perception impacts the way citizens react, which should be considered during the implementation of policy. This thesis analyses the cases of Germany and the Netherlands with interview data of various protest groups elites and experts. It argues that when citizens feel that climate policies are unfair, exclusive, untrustworthy and their financial costs are perceived as high, protest movements will arise and intensify. In addition, results show that perceived sociocultural costs are most important for protest movement emergence and intensification. Policymakers should deal with these perceptions adequately if they want to implement climate policies effectively.Show less
This research explores the potential impact of EU election observation missions on the quality of elections, through the diffusion of democratic standards. The analysis is based on a single-case...Show moreThis research explores the potential impact of EU election observation missions on the quality of elections, through the diffusion of democratic standards. The analysis is based on a single-case study of the Kenyan elections building on diverse data including reports and interviews, applied in the process tracing method. Building on socialization theory and norm diffusion, I hypothesize that election observation has an impact on election quality, through the diffusion of democratic values. The Kenyan legal framework meets international obligations requiring elections to be “accountable and transparent”. But the tumultuous history of election violence highlighted fundamental issues and systematic problems that must be addressed. The findings show that there is a relevant added value to the presence of EU EOM, within different phases of the election cycle. The implementation of the EU EOM recommendations plays a key role in understanding the contribution of election observation to improve election quality. EU EOMs are found to be effective in deterring fraud and corruption, as election observation contributes to pressuring government officials to respect the electoral law. In the Kenyan case, the implementation of recommendations contributed to the mitigation of election-related violence, and the promotion of the stakeholders' confidence in the electoral process.Show less
This study examines the extent to which the Multilateral Intelligence Cooperation (MIC) model can account for the increase in intelligence cooperation between European Union Member States (EU MS)...Show moreThis study examines the extent to which the Multilateral Intelligence Cooperation (MIC) model can account for the increase in intelligence cooperation between European Union Member States (EU MS) in the field of counterterrorism. It is an explanatory deductive study employing qualitative methods, more specifically process-tracing, using data obtained from interviews and analysis of primary and secondary sources. The Madrid 2004 bombings and November 2015 Paris attacks are used as case studies to provide in-depth analysis of the MIC framework. The findings indicate that the driver internal demand contributes significantly to a MS’ decision to engage in intelligence exchange. The other two drivers, external pressure and cooperative momentum, are clearly discernible but have a smaller impact. Additionally, this research examines the MIC model’s limitations and discusses alternative factors crucial for establishing effective multilateral intelligence cooperation.Show less
Despite the main function of the United Nations (UN) peacekeepers being to protect civilians in war-torn territories, allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) committed by said...Show moreDespite the main function of the United Nations (UN) peacekeepers being to protect civilians in war-torn territories, allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) committed by said peacekeepers continue to arise during every peacekeeping mission. Much of the previous scholarship has focused on the structural and institutional causes of the problem, primarily focusing on factors such as immunities, data gathering mechanisms and training programs. The feminist scholarship has also been increasingly vocal on the matter, stressing the importance of gender framing in UN documents and policies. Nevertheless, the feminist theory has continuously resorted to normative studies, lacking any empirical backing to their arguments. This thesis investigates whether a condescending and victimizing way in which women are framed in a series of UN documents can serve as a possible explanation for the continued SEA perpetrated by the UN peacekeepers. A critical discourse analysis of the UN’s zero-tolerance policy, SEA pre-training manual and mission mandates demonstrated that UN’s discourse on gender can be one of the reasons why SEA is continuously committed by the peacekeepers.Show less
United Nations peacekeeping missions are increasingly criticised for their failures to protect civilians and even for human rights abuses by peacekeepers. The victims of this misconduct have been...Show moreUnited Nations peacekeeping missions are increasingly criticised for their failures to protect civilians and even for human rights abuses by peacekeepers. The victims of this misconduct have been trying to get reparation in court by holding the UN legally accountable. However, with the UN being protected by its immunity, they have started turning to the State as an alternative legal avenue. The academic debate has followed this turn of events by asking if and how a troop-contributing country (TCC) should be held accountable in court. Scholars are arguing in favour of applying the ‘effective control’ test to reach attribution to the State. This thesis will, therefore, aim to answer the question: In what ways can the ‘effective control’ test contribute to State accountability in peacekeeping? It will do so by applying a qualitative, legal doctrinal approach to a case study: the fall of Srebrenica (1995). The Srebrenica cases (2008-2019), which ensued from this instance of peacekeeping failure, provide insights into the contribution of the ‘effective control’ test to peacekeeping accountability. This thesis will conclude that the ‘effective control’ test according to the preventive interpretation, based on Article 7 ARIO, allows for a wide attribution to the State and thus State accountability in peacekeeping.Show less
The study of regional security governance has gained much attention in the past years, particularly in regions such as Europe, Africa, and Asia. While the existing literature is focused upon those...Show moreThe study of regional security governance has gained much attention in the past years, particularly in regions such as Europe, Africa, and Asia. While the existing literature is focused upon those regions, this thesis will focus upon the Pacific region. The Pacific is vulnerable to a variety of non-traditional security issues (e.g. non-military), ranging from Environmental Security to Cybersecurity. These transborder threats ask for a regional response. Through an exploratory analysis of the security governance systems governing Environmental Security and Cybersecurity, this thesis gives a comprehensive understanding of the governance of non-traditional security issues in the Pacific region. Findings indicate that Climate Security is governed by a clear security governance system, while Cybersecurity is governed by a hybrid system that contains characteristics of two systems.Show less
While small states lack the military and economic resources to affect the behaviour of other states, they do have access to other forms of power that they can utilize when in conflict with a major...Show moreWhile small states lack the military and economic resources to affect the behaviour of other states, they do have access to other forms of power that they can utilize when in conflict with a major power. This research examines the ways in which the Philippines, as a small state, uses these forms of power to overcome the structural constraints that it faces in its conflict with China, a major power, in their conflict over the South China Sea. These different forms of power are categorised into four types: particular-intrinsic, derivative, collective and legal. This research has found that by using certain types of power, the Philippines precludes itself from using other types of power. The different types of power, when used successfully, can also be used to amplify or enhance other types of power. Finally, this research has found that there are limits placed on the use of derivative power of major powers by different domestic interest groups.Show less
The legitimacy of NATO is a continuing source of debate since the end of the Cold War. Now-adays with a changing security environment due to new threats like terrorism, NATO’s legiti-macy depends...Show moreThe legitimacy of NATO is a continuing source of debate since the end of the Cold War. Now-adays with a changing security environment due to new threats like terrorism, NATO’s legiti-macy depends on alternatives to traditional warfare. To meet parts of those challenges NATO adopted the Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) agenda which came as a surprise to most femi-nists and was soon depicted as co-opted for NATO’s interest. While the existing literature does not link the WPS agenda to legitimacy, this thesis assesses to what extent the WPS agenda is used to enhance NATO's legitimacy thus justify NATO’s military interventions. For this pur-pose, a discourse analysis in official statements of NATO member states disclosed an overview of legitimation dynamics in relation to the WPS agenda. The findings indicate that the member states use the WPS agenda to legitimize NATO and its military interventions, but depending on the discursive target either to the international or domestic public.Show less
