This research paper aims to investigate the safety and efficacy of the newly emerging online approach to psychedelic ceremonies as well as explore the impact set and setting have on the experience....Show moreThis research paper aims to investigate the safety and efficacy of the newly emerging online approach to psychedelic ceremonies as well as explore the impact set and setting have on the experience. Previous research has demonstrated and explored the benefits of psychedelics and their impact on mental health. Nonetheless, no study has yet investigated the potential benefits of psychedelics in an online setting. Therefore, this study recorded the experiences of average people who participated in Spinoza’s online psychedelic ceremonies by means of a voluntary questionnaire. Results showed a significant increase in mental health, compared to baseline, for almost all participants. Additionally, individual differences and setting seemingly had no significant impact on the trip experience. This study provides an insight into the potential experiences of virtual psychedelic ceremonies, contributing to the growing research within the field of psychedelics.Show less
The practice of microdosing (taking small amounts of psychedelics) has been found to affect neurochemistry without causing hallucinogenic effects. This allows for daily use that can enhance...Show moreThe practice of microdosing (taking small amounts of psychedelics) has been found to affect neurochemistry without causing hallucinogenic effects. This allows for daily use that can enhance cognition, mood, and overall wellness without negatively impacting normal cognitive function. It has been proposed that microdosing may also positively impact health behaviours such as improving dietary habits, increasing exercise frequency or quitting smoking. In this cross-sectional exploratory study, we sought to identify the health behaviours that were most commonly reported as changing after microdosing. Additionally, we aimed to uncover the underlying mechanisms driving these changes and examine the influence of set and setting on the outcomes. 365 individuals who engage in adult microdosing completed an online survey questionnaire to share their personal experiences with the practice. Additionally, 21 microdosing coaching practitioners were asked to complete a similar questionnaire. The two most frequently reported changes in health behaviours by both the users and practitioners were sleep and contemplative/mindfulness practices. Emotion regulation, psychological flexibility, and resilience were the three most often reported psychological mechanisms underlying the health behaviour changes. Moreover, the environment and mentality during psychedelic experiences impacted the outcome. The study found that incorporating other behavioural strategies alongside microdosing and practicing mindfulness had a significant correlation with improved health behaviours. Further research is needed to provide a deeper understanding of the mechanisms that underlie health behaviour change and what the exact relationship these psychological factors have with the health behaviours.Show less
Scientific research in the past years progressively examined the effects of microdosing psychedelics on mental health and cognition. However, the effects of microdosing on health behavior change ...Show moreScientific research in the past years progressively examined the effects of microdosing psychedelics on mental health and cognition. However, the effects of microdosing on health behavior change (HBC) remain understudied. This study provides the first exploration of a potential impact of microdosing on HBC, including its psychological mechanisms and possible mediators. The study was composed of two retrospective questionnaires. A total of N = 365 participants reported on their own microdosing experiences in the first questionnaire. Most respondents reported a link between microdosing and HBC, with effects being strongest for sleep, physical activity, and mindfulness practices. Moreover, we examined the impact of three potentially mediating or moderating variables: Prior full-dose psychedelic experience, applying another strategy of HBC, and gender. Results of the first two variables differed on specific HBC-variables. Gender did not impact the effect of microdosing on HBC. Psychologically, mental health and well-being, psychological flexibility, and self-efficacy were most frequently reported as mechanisms of HBC. In the second questionnaire, N = 10 practitioners reported on their observations on clients’ HBC associated with microdosing. Reported effects were mostly in agreement with reports provided by microdosers. Practitioners reported health as an identity, psychological flexibility, and integrated emotion most frequently as psychological mechanisms. Overall, the data obtained through both questionnaires is consistent with prior research on psychedelics and microdosing. Given the novelty of the demonstrated link between microdosing and HBC, more research with different study designs is recommended to support our findings in double-blind, longitudinal contexts.Show less
In recent years, research on psychedelic usage in a ceremonial context has been growing. A new form of online psychedelic ceremonies has recently emerged, but it has not yet been thoroughly studied...Show moreIn recent years, research on psychedelic usage in a ceremonial context has been growing. A new form of online psychedelic ceremonies has recently emerged, but it has not yet been thoroughly studied. During online ceremonies, participants access the session from the safety of their own homes and have no facilitators present. This paper scrutinizes the effectiveness of the online ceremony as well as the positive and negative aspects of the digital format. This study analyzes qualitative data gathered from participants of the Spinoza online psychedelic ceremony to describe their experiences and the short- term health effects. Most participants found the online ceremony to be enjoyable and appreciated the convenience of the format. However, some faced technical difficulties which caused negative experiences. Overall, the accessibility of the online format was a significant advantage. Participants also reported experiencing positive changes in their well-being post-ceremony. Yet, some stated feeling no change in their mental or physical well-being after completion of the ceremony. Online psychedelic ceremonies show to be a promising format that can reach and include diverse populations from all over the world and warrants further research into its effectiveness, practice, and ethical aspects.Show less
The traditional approach to research and diagnosis in psychiatry has been to focus on one specific diagnostic criterium at a time (DSM-5). Recent criticism suggests a transdiagnostic method that...Show moreThe traditional approach to research and diagnosis in psychiatry has been to focus on one specific diagnostic criterium at a time (DSM-5). Recent criticism suggests a transdiagnostic method that focuses more on underlying behavioral and cognitive traits to predict vulnerability to disorders such as OCD, ADHD, and eating disorders. Among these traits are impulsivity and compulsivity. According to the traditional model, impulsivity and compulsivity exist as a spectrum that is thought to be influenced by reward and avoidance sensitivity. In addition, this work proposes the use of the Metacontrol State Model (Hommel, 2015) in order to explore the Impulsivity-Compulsivity spectrum at the hand of flexibility and persistence. This study aims to explore to what extent reward-avoidance sensitivity and flexibility-persistence can account for Impulsivity-Compulsivity. 41 participants partook in this study that measured Impulsivity-Compulsivity using the S-UPPS, flexibility-persistence using the Stroop task and the AUT, and reward-avoidance sensitivity as per the MID. A multiple linear regression analysis found that trait biases towards the Metacontrol states flexibility-persistence positively predicted the Impulsivity-Compulsivity spectrum. Additionally, reward sensitivity negatively predicted impulsivity, the opposite of what was theorized. This relationship is explored with the help of more recent research, which suggests that the traditional model of reward-avoidance sensitivity oversimplifies Impulsivity-Compulsivity. However, results were found to be inconsistent. Thus, this work suggests that the relationship between reward-avoidance sensitivity and the Impulsivity-Compulsivity spectrum is further explored. In addition, this work provides preliminary evidence in favor of the Metacontrol State Model as a transdiagnostic tool.Show less
Impulsivity and compulsivity have been placed on a continuum in which impulsivity is motivated by reward sensitivity and compulsivity by avoidance. Recently, however, studies emphasised...Show moreImpulsivity and compulsivity have been placed on a continuum in which impulsivity is motivated by reward sensitivity and compulsivity by avoidance. Recently, however, studies emphasised neurocognitive influences on impulsivity and compulsivity, underscoring the significance of action control. Thus, this study proposed the metacontrol state model (MSM) as an additional explanation of variance in impulsivity and compulsivity across the general population. The MSM views individuals to fall on a spectrum between cognitive flexibility and persistence, where the individual’s biases towards either side of the spectrum impacts their ability to control and inhibit action. We hypothesised that individual meta-control biases towards flexibility or persistence predict individual differences in impulsivity and compulsivity in addition to reward sensitivity and avoidance. In order to examine this relationship, 41 participants (mean age = 23.7) completed a variation of the Stroop task, the Monetary Incentive Delay task, and the UPPS-P Impulsive Behaviour Scale. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that a meta-control bias towards flexibility was positively associated with impulsivity while a persistence bias was associated with compulsivity. However, this study’s findings contradicted the traditional view, indicating an association of reward sensitivity with compulsivity and avoidance with impulsivity. The exploratory analysis, identified an interaction between reward sensitivity and the meta-control biases and a mediating effect of the MSM was suspected. Overall, this study highlights the association between individual differences in cognitive control and impulsivity and compulsivity, emphasising both the insufficiency of traditional models and the relevance of the meta-control state model.Show less
The transdiagnostic approach to psychiatry assumes that neuropsychiatric disorders can be placed on a continuum of neurocognitive endophenotypes. Impulsivity and Compulsivity have been viewed as...Show moreThe transdiagnostic approach to psychiatry assumes that neuropsychiatric disorders can be placed on a continuum of neurocognitive endophenotypes. Impulsivity and Compulsivity have been viewed as opposite ends of a continuum, with the first being connected to increased reward seeking and the second with increased harm avoidance/anxiety, according to the traditional Model. On the other hand, according to the Metacontrol State Model (MSM) the Impulsivity/Compulsivity spectrum can be the result of the neurocognitive endophenotypes of cognitive persistence and cognitive flexibility. This scientific study seeks to answer the question of whether the variance in the continuum can be predicted by the traditional model of reward sensitivity, and anxiety/harm avoidance, and whether the MSM parameters of flexibility and persistence can account for additional or even superior variance in the Impulsivity-Compulsivity spectrum. To that end, the Stroop task, the Alternative Uses Task, the S-UPPS, and the Monetary Delay (MID) task were used to assess individual differences in the aforementioned endophenotypes across 41 participants. The results of the study illustrate a significant relationship between Impulsivity and cognitive flexibility and Compulsivity and persistence, which explained higher variance in the data as compared to the traditional model parameters. Therefore, this indicates that the Metacontrol State Model (MSM) may be a more appropriate explanation of the Impulsivity-Compulsivity spectrum than the approach and avoidance sensitivity proposed by the traditional model.Show less
Introduction The traditional approach to impulsivity and compulsivity entails that those behaviors are driven by reward sensitivity and anxiety/avoidance. According to the Metacontrol State Model...Show moreIntroduction The traditional approach to impulsivity and compulsivity entails that those behaviors are driven by reward sensitivity and anxiety/avoidance. According to the Metacontrol State Model by Hommel (MSM) (2015), tendencies towards either flexibility or persistence are the root of impulsive and compulsive behaviors, respectively. This study investigated whether the MSM can explain the additional variance of the single-dimension impulsivity-compulsivity spectrum in the subclinical population. Methods 41 Participants participated in the study with ages ranging from 18-35 years (M = 23.81; SD = 3.53). Data was gathered through questionnaires and experiments (S-UPPS, Stroop Task, Monetary Incentive Delay Task and Alternate Uses Task). Results The data was analyzed with a Multiple Linear Regression Analysis. The proposed model significantly predicts impulsivity and compulsivity with flexibility and persistence (F(4,32) = 5.948, p = .001, adjusted R² = .382). Conclusion The present study supports the theory of the MSM predicting impulsivity and compulsivity. Future research is recommended to confirm this to a greater extent.Show less
The prospect of reward has increasingly been shown to influence modes of cognitive control. Recent work by Fröber and Dreisbach (2016) showed that performance contingent reward increases proactive...Show moreThe prospect of reward has increasingly been shown to influence modes of cognitive control. Recent work by Fröber and Dreisbach (2016) showed that performance contingent reward increases proactive control, while non-contingent reward decreases proactive control and possibly increases reactive control. According to the Metacontrol State Model (Hommel, 2015), the differential effects of reward on cognitive control can be understood as a tradeoff between cognitive persistence and flexibility. Persistence refers to a mode of control that allows for strong maintenance of goal-relevant information and the suppression of irrelevant information, while flexibility refers to a mode of control that facilitates switching between tasks by allowing for more efficient consideration of irrelevant information. While evidence suggests that contingent reward promotes persistence and non-contingent reward decreases persistence, it is not clear whether non-contingent reward promotes flexibility. The aim of the present study was to expand on previous findings by investigating whether contingent reward promotes persistence and whether non-contingent reward promotes flexibility, by employing two cognitive tasks that presumably benefit from either persistence or flexibility, namely the Simon task and the Attentional Blink task. Participants were allocated to three conditions (e.g., contingent, non-contingent, and control) and performed both tasks in a single session. Participant allocation and task completion were counterbalanced. Both performance contingent and non-contingent reward promoted cognitive flexibility in the Simon task, or at least decreased cognitive persistence, but had no effect in the Attentional blink task. While these results support the general finding that reward differentially modulates cognitive control, they further underline the importance of considering the cognitive paradigm used to assess changes in cognitive control.Show less
