Research master thesis | Psychology (research) (MSc)
open access
Bullying victimization is a major public health concern, because victims often experience long-term negative mental health outcomes. Longitudinal brain structure research in children is needed to...Show moreBullying victimization is a major public health concern, because victims often experience long-term negative mental health outcomes. Longitudinal brain structure research in children is needed to understand the possible mechanisms underlying the relation between bullying victimization and negative mental health outcomes. Previous research has shown that the fusiform gyrus, amygdala and vmPFC are impaired in victims. Therefore, this thesis examined the relation between victimization and fusiform gyrus, amygdala and vmPFC volume over time. We hypothesized that victims of bullying, compared to children uninvolved in bullying, would have a larger fusiform gyrus volume and a steeper volume increase. Furthermore, we hypothesized that victims of bullying, compared to children uninvolved in bullying, would have a smaller amygdala and vmPFC volume and a steeper volume decrease. The sample consisted of 156 children (62% female), aged between 7 and 9 years old at baseline, from the Leiden Consortium on Individual Development. At the beginning of the study, the Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire was administered to measure bullying victimization and high-resolution structural MRI scans were taken. This was done again two years later. Children were classified as victims if they had been bullied regularly in the past two months. We did not find an effect of victimization on fusiform gyrus, amygdala and vmPFC volume. Future research examining the influence of victimization on both structural and functional brain development is needed to provide further insights, which can help inform the design of interventions to reduce the negative consequences of bullying victimization. The current findings emphasize the importance of protective factors that make a victim’s brain development resilient against victimization. This indicates a need for interventions targeting the development of social-emotional skills or the increase of family support.Show less
While parental sensitivity has been identified as an important factor in the development and maintenance of aggression, it is currently unknown whether parental sensitivity contributes to the sex...Show moreWhile parental sensitivity has been identified as an important factor in the development and maintenance of aggression, it is currently unknown whether parental sensitivity contributes to the sex difference in aggression. The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether the sex difference in reactive aggression, with boys exhibiting higher levels of aggression as compared to girls, can be attributed to differential levels of parental sensitivity experienced by boys and girls. As part of this, sex differences in received parental sensitivity and reactive aggression were examined. This study included data from the Leiden Consortium on Individual Development (L-CID) and included 155 children (age range: 10.07 - 12.78 years old, 75 boys; 80 girls) and their primary parents. Reactive aggression was measured with the Dutch Reactive Proactive Questionnaire (DRPI). Parental sensitivity was measured by using the Etch-A-Sketch Task. A sex difference in reactive aggression was observed, with boys showing higher reactive aggression scores as compared to girls. No sex difference in received parental sensitivity was observed. The sex difference in aggression was not significantly mediated by parental sensitivity. The absence of a mediation effect by parental sensitivity in the observed sex difference highlights the need for further investigation of factors associated with the sex difference in aggression, in order to design interventions that promote healthier socioemotional outcomes for boys and thus their families, peers and society.Show less
The present study examined the relationship between dysfunctional parenting and pro-social behaviour in children and analysed the role of parent and child gender in this. A total of 238 children...Show moreThe present study examined the relationship between dysfunctional parenting and pro-social behaviour in children and analysed the role of parent and child gender in this. A total of 238 children participated in the Pro-social Cyberball Game, which is an experimental task to measure pro-social behaviour. Their primary parents completed the Parenting Scale, a questionnaire to assess use of dysfunctional parenting practices. A general linear model was performed. Differences in pro-social behaviour between boys and girls were examined and no significant difference was found. Contrary to our hypothesis which stated that more dysfunctional parenting would be related to less pro-social children, results were not significant. We examined this effect in several groups: comparing primary parents who are male to those who are female, and comparing families where primary parent and child belong to the same gender (same-gender dyads) to families where primary parent and child were of opposite gender (mixed-gender dyads). In our sample there was no difference in the way a parent influences his/her child’s pro-social behaviour, between mothers and fathers. Also, there was no difference in the effect of dysfunctional parenting on child’s pro-social behaviour, between same-gender and mixed-gender dyads. The present study contributes to clarifying alleged boy-girl and father-mother differences in pro-social behaviour and the effect of dysfunctional parenting on pro-sociality. The discussion reviewed the influence of gender norms in parenting and child behaviour and implications of these results.Show less
The importance of self-regulation has repeatedly been shown in various areas, such as risk-taking, school performance, and delinquency. Across several Western countries, a trend has been noted in...Show moreThe importance of self-regulation has repeatedly been shown in various areas, such as risk-taking, school performance, and delinquency. Across several Western countries, a trend has been noted in which boys are scoring worse on self-regulation measures than girls. This can appear as early as kindergarten with individual differences in self-regulation seemingly stable over time. As higher levels of self-regulation are related to higher well-being and health, it is important to close the gap between males and females. Nonetheless, there is a lack of studies on children and adolescents that visualize sex patterns as they age. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted to test three hypotheses: (1.) Females have significantly higher self-regulation scores in childhood, and 2.) Females have significantly higher self-regulation scores in adolescence, and 3.) There is a significant overall difference in favor of females. A significant sex difference in favor of girls could be found in childhood, but not in adolescence in which boys and girls aligned. The overall sex difference of both groups was significant in favor of girls. This suggests that boys are catching up with girls as they age. Further research needs to be done to see if this trend in adolescence can be replicated. If this is the case, more research is needed to understand why males are performing worse on variables significantly related to self-regulation despite a closing sex difference.Show less
It has been known for many years now, that girls consistently outperform boys in school. Previous research has shown that there are two non-cognitive factors, motivation and personality traits,...Show moreIt has been known for many years now, that girls consistently outperform boys in school. Previous research has shown that there are two non-cognitive factors, motivation and personality traits, which might be able to explain some of the variance for school achievement. Therefore, the current meta-analysis investigated whether boys and girls show significant differences for these two variables. During the analysis, particular emphasis was laid on the influence of age and school subjects. After the literature search on Web of Science, the results of 48 studies (motivation: 38, personality traits: 10) from western countries, were analysed in R. All included studies were published between 2011-2021 and exclusively included healthy students between ages 5-21. The results for motivation showed that, across all ages, girls have significantly higher intrinsic motivation for languages, and that from primary school onwards, boys have significant more intrinsic motivation for subjects related to math and science. The results for personality traits showed that girls scored significantly higher on measures of conscientiousness and measures of agreeableness. Based on these results it was concluded that there are significant gender differences for motivation and for personality traits. In the future policy makers should consider the current results and incorporate solutions that control for these differences.Show less
Recently it has been brought to schools’ attention that the grade gap between boys and girls is increasing over generations, where boys are likely to perform poorly when compared to girls. The...Show moreRecently it has been brought to schools’ attention that the grade gap between boys and girls is increasing over generations, where boys are likely to perform poorly when compared to girls. The purpose of the present study is to estimate whether there are sex differences in big five personality traits and whether this might be related to the grade gap between girls and boys in different school levels. Especially during secondary school, children are subject to major changes in their scores of personality traits since they enter adolescence. A meta-analysis was conducted from 10 articles that presented sex differences in big five personality traits for children in primary and secondary school level. The effect sizes did not significantly differ between personality traits. Results displayed that overall girls score significantly higher than boys on agreeableness and conscientiousness. The effect sizes for school levels also did not differ between primary and secondary school levels. It is concluded that significant differences in certain traits could account for sex differences in academic achievement. The reason why girls score higher on the big-five personality questionnaires could be related to their self-perceptions being shaped by socio-cultural norms stating that girls should be organized and well-behaved, while these norms state that boys can be misbehaved and assertive. Future research requires to take possible moderators into account and investigate studies that include parent-report rather than only self-report.Show less
In the past decades extensive research has been done regarding sex differences in coping and the use of different coping strategies. Contradicting findings on the presence of sex differences in...Show moreIn the past decades extensive research has been done regarding sex differences in coping and the use of different coping strategies. Contradicting findings on the presence of sex differences in coping make it difficult to understand this concept and to generalize findings that may contribute to the creation of helpful interventions for both boys and girls. This meta-analysis includes seven studies that study sex differences in coping in students from the age of 13 till 18 years old. The analysis was performed in R and a main effect of coping was studied as well as an effect for the grouping variable that measured three different coping styles; problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping and avoidant coping. The effect size of the main effect of coping was found to be significant, indicating girls tend to use coping more often than boys. The grouping variable was found to be non-significant indicating the three different coping strategies, problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping and avoidant coping, did not differ significantly from each other. For this reason no post hoc analysis on the grouping variable was performed thus no findings on sex differences regarding the different coping strategies, problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping and avoidant coping, could be established from this meta analysis. A significant main effect of coping suggests sex differences in coping are present but not whether different strategies are used more by either boys or girls. Future studies should focus on the specific sex differences that occur regarding the use of different coping strategies as this knowledge can contribute to future sex depended coping interventions.Show less
Over the years there has been a shift in school performance, where girls perform better than boys. Previous research has shown that social competence and motivation can influence school performance...Show moreOver the years there has been a shift in school performance, where girls perform better than boys. Previous research has shown that social competence and motivation can influence school performance. It is not yet entirely clear if these factors can explain the difference in performance between boys and girls. Therefore, the present meta-analysis was performed to look at possible sex differences on these two variables. The literature search conducted in March 2021 led to the inclusion of 16 articles for social competence and 39 articles for motivation. The results show a significant sex difference in social competence, in favor of girls. There was no significant sex difference in motivation. However, there was a significant sex difference on the grouping variable domain. The difference between language and science was significant. The significant difference in language was in favor of girls, but the significant difference in science was in favor of boys. The results indicate that social competence might be associated with the sex differences seen in school performance. The results from the motivation subgroup analysis suggest that the association with school performance might depend on the type of motivation. Additionally, social competence and motivation can be influenced by implicit expectations or associations. More research is needed to examine these effects. It is important to make teachers, as well as people outside of the school setting aware of the effects of social competence and motivation, and the implicated stereotypes associated with them, and to find possible solutions.Show less
