One of the most evocative archaeological cultures in the Netherlands is the Funnel Beaker culture, further referred to as TRB. During the TRB period megalithic burial structures were erected, the...Show moreOne of the most evocative archaeological cultures in the Netherlands is the Funnel Beaker culture, further referred to as TRB. During the TRB period megalithic burial structures were erected, the hunebedden. Most of the hunebedden have been excavated and are located in the north-east of the Netherlands (specifically the province of Drenthe). The excavations of the hunebedden were not very thorough but did however reveal a lot of information about burial practices of the TRB culture. For instance, the hunebedden were communal burials in which multiple people were buried. Along with the deceased, a range of different grave goods were provided, including flint tools and pottery. Due to the excavations, and the visibility of the hunebedden, a lot is known about them. This does not apply to the settlements of the TRB, so where did the people of the TRB live (van Gijn & Bakker, 2005, p. 288-289; van der Sanden, 2017, p. 4; Wentink, 2006, p. 33)? Settlements of the TRB are scarce, which results in less information about the settlements or the way of life of the TRB people. There are however a few settlements known of the TRB, the site of Slootdorp-Bouwlust is for instance one them as well as the site of Haren De Vork, which is examined in this thesis. What is known about the way of life of the TRB people is that their means of survival was in both hunting (and fishing) and agriculture. Their agricultural way of life consisted mostly of a method that is called slash and burn, where parts of forests were burned down to create fertile soil on which crops could be cultivated and harvested. For this agricultural system flint axes, strike-a-lights and sickle blades were used. They also held a range of livestock including pigs, goats and cattle, however no chickens were held (van der Sanden, 2017, p. 6; van Gijn 2013, p. 26-27). These people possibly lived in two-aisled houses. Within the settlements many different activities had probably been carried out, including hide working, wood working and plant working. For these activities a range of flint tools were used including scrapers and axes. The TRB people also produced a distinctive type of pottery, decorated by the deeply incised decoration (van Gijn & Bakker, 2005, p. 282). To interpret what kind activities were conducted at a settlement site, use-wear studies of the ubiquitous flint artefacts recovered from a site can reveal something about the activities carried out. In this thesis a use-wear analysis has been conducted for a selection of flint artefacts recovered at the site of Haren De Vork (Haren, the Netherlands). The site of Haren De Vork is possibly one of the scarce settlements of the TRB found in the Netherlands, and was excavated in 2017. The excavation brought forth a large amount of flint artefacts, namely 20.000 artefacts. Due to the large amount of flint artefacts that were found during the excavations, the finds have been divided in clusters (van Kruining et al., 2018, p. 14; Devriendt, 2021, p. 2-4). In this thesis the 50 artefacts were selected from two different clusters, clusters 3 & 4. Of cluster 3, 11 artefacts were selected and from cluster 4, 39 artefacts were selected. This difference in sample size can be explained through the sizes and the preservation of the artefacts per cluster. Hence, cluster 4 is the bigger cluster and seems to have better preserved artefacts. The selected artefacts of both clusters have been analysed by the so-called low- and high-power approach, where the artefacts are examined through two different microscopes. Among the selected artefacts of both clusters, there also burned artefacts. Cluster 3 consisted of 45% of burned objects, and cluster 4 of 32%. This complicated the analysis but in most cases traces were still visible. Three artefacts from cluster 3 were not interpretable due to heavy burning. The other artefacts showed evidence of hide working, plant working, wood working and bone working, of which hide working was the most prominent activity. The most prominent motion was cutting. For cluster 4 it was not possible to interpret four artefacts. On these artefacts there were either no traces or the traces were not interpretable due to burning. On the remaining 35 artefacts traces of hide working, plant working, bone working and wood working were inferred, of which again hide working was the most prominent. For cluster 4 the prominent motion is scraping but it is closely followed by cutting the contact material. For both clusters there was also a number of edges on which traces were seen but the contact material or motion could not be inferred. The artefacts with the probable used edges were therefore included in the analysis. The preservation of the artefacts of cluster 4 was better in cluster 3, which was clearly visible while conducting the use-wear analysis. Based on the results of the use-wear analysis it is clear that within cluster 3 and 4 a range of different activities were conducted. The main activity conducted at the site was probably hide working (both scraping and cutting hide). In cluster 3, the activities were diverse and no real main activity could be interpreted. Due to the high burning rate within cluster 3 it is believed by MUG archaeologists that within this cluster fire-related activities were conducted. This could however not be proven by the analysis. For cluster 4 it was seen that scraping hide was the main activity of the cluster, closely followed by cutting plant and plant-like materials. Bone working traces were scarce in both clusters which can indicate that this activity was probably conducted elsewhere. The activities are diverse and this diversity is consistent with a (permanent) settlement, which is also the interpretation of the site. The use-wear analysis supports the interpretation by showing the multiple activities and hide working as a possible main activity.Show less
Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) is one of the most common perennial plants on the European continent. Growing equally well in forests, ditches and ruderal spaces up to 2.5m tall, it is easy to find...Show moreStinging nettle (Urtica dioica) is one of the most common perennial plants on the European continent. Growing equally well in forests, ditches and ruderal spaces up to 2.5m tall, it is easy to find and identify due to its stem and characteristic oval, serrated leaves being lavishly covered in irritant-filled trichomes, a hair-like organs. Having plenty of nutritional and medical applications, it is however often overlooked as a source of textile fibres. The issue perhaps being a result of dying traditions of nettle uses, as well as being associated with war time crop, due to the increased attempts at industrialisation during the both World Wars in Europe. Yet, it had a much more profound role, not only in historical times. It used to be known as distinctive, luxurious, soft, fine and full of lustre fabric of Bronze Age elites, as it was identified as a priced grave gift in one of the richest and most splendid burials of the period from the mound Lushoj in Denmark. It was also known and valued in mediaeval times as both sign of status, but also as tough, fast drying and resistant fibre preferred for rigging. Urtica dioica seems often neglected in the research of Neolithic textiles. The aim of this paper therefore is to propose it as an alternative material to the main source of fibre of the age, that was newly domesticated and introduced to the small continent flax, as well as more and more acknowledged, and utilised since at least Mesolithic, tree basts. It is necessary to draw attention towards nettle, as there is a small, yet growing set of samples identified as this plant. The best known examples coming from spheres where the introduction of flax came at a later period, as the waterlogged site of La Draga, Spain where a whole ball of yarn has been found, or a thread on the fishing comb from seabed near Skjoldnas on Aro in Denmark. To contextualise these finds, a wider look at the Urticaceae family is included, especially as Japanese cousins of the common nettle is one of the oldest known textile dated to 10 000 BC early Jomon period, while well documented processing methods of Boehmeria nivea might be also applied for Urtica. Similarly, ethnological, historical and experimental data allows for expanding the understanding of nettle fibre applications, but also, based on records and in comparison to flax and hemp, for reconstruction of the collection, retting and spinning techniques, which might have been used by European Neolithic communities. Further, the identification methods, such as modified Herzog test, calcium oxalate crystals observation and cross section, are briefly discussed to illustrate the complexity and limitations of bast plants attribution. Additionally, the information about technical properties allows to demonstrate the value of Urtica as a source of fibre, as tensile strength, toughness and drying rate presented results as good, or better than those of flax. These, combined with possibly greater length and longer collection period, could constitute an important input of advantages of Urtica and its presence in the Neolithic. _..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._ _..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._..._ Pokrzywa zwyczajna (Urtica dioica) jest wieloletnią rośliną powszechnie występującą na terenie całej Europy. Rozwija się równie dobrze na terenach leśnych, łąkowych oraz ruderalnych osiągając wysokość do 2,5m. Jest stosunkowo łatwa do zidentyfikowania dzięki łodydze i charakterystycznym owalnym, ząbkowanym liściom, obficie pokrytymi gruczołowatymi, parzącymi włoskami, powodującymi, w kontakcie ze skórą, bolesną reakcję zapalną. Pomimo, iż jej zastosowania w obrębie medycyny i żywienia są dobrze znane,wykorzystanie pokrzywy do produkcji tekstylnej wydaje się być zapomniane lub zupełnie pomijane. Jej użycie w tej dziedzinie jest zwykle jedynie wspominane w kontekście braków wojennych, szczególnie prób industrializacji jej uprawy w czasie II wojny światowej. Jednak w okresie prehistorycznym, a nawet historycznym, rola pokrzywy i jej znacznie były o wiele większe, do tego stopnia, że starannie utkana w cienką, delikatną, miękką, wysoce połyskliwą tkaninę, jest obecnie czasem określana jako obiekt charakteryzujący epokę brązu. Taki, luksusowy, materiał był odnajdowany w darach pogrzebowych w pochówkach elit tego okresu, m. in. z niezwykle bogato wyposażonego kopca Lushøj w Danii. Jeszcze w okresie średniowiecza wykonana z pokrzywy lekka tkanina była symbolem statusu, zaś jej mniej obrobione, sztywniejsze i szorstkie włókna wykorzystywano do produkcji sznurów i olinowania. Jednakże Urtica dioica wydaje się być pomijana w badaniach nad szeroko rozumianymi tekstyliami okresu neolitu, dlatego celem tej pracy jest przybliżenie jej zastosowań i właściwości oraz, poprzez analogie form pozyskania i przetwórstwa, zaproponowanie pokrzywy jako alternatywy dla głównych źródeł włókienniczych tej epoki, za które przyjmuje się nowo udomowiony i dopiero wprowadzany do uprawy na terenie Europy len, oraz coraz częściej rozpoznawane, a będące w użyciu przynajmniej od mezolitu, łyka drzew. Jest to szczególnie uzasadnione ze względu na rosnącą grupę zabytków identyfikowanych jako tekstylia pokrzywowe, pochodzące często z regionów i kultur, w których uprawa lnu nie była praktykowana, takich jak podmokłe stanowisko w La Draga, w Hiszpanii, na którym odkryto wytworzony z włókien pokrzywy motek sznurka, lub z dna morskiego w pobliżu Skjoldnæs na Ærø, w Danii, skąd pochodzi trójzębna ość rybacka połączona ze sobą pokrzywową nicią. Aby umiejscowić pokrzywę zwyczajną w temacie produkcji tekstylnej, należy przyjrzeć się jej w szerszym kontekście taksonomicznym rodziny Urticaceae, jako że należące do niej rośliny mają długą i obszerną historię zastosowań w tej dziedzinie, a których techniki obróbki mogą być z powodzeniem przełożone na Urticę dioicę. Najlepiej znany jest tu Szczymiel biały (Boehmeria nivea) zwany również Ramią, zaś spokrewniona z nim Boehmeria japonica jest prawdopodobnie jedną z najdawniej wykorzystywanych roślin tkackich, o czym świadczy wykonany z niej fragment materiału z wczesnego okresu Jomon (Japonia), datowany na około 10 tys. lat BC. Podobnie, etnologiczne, historyczne i eksperymentalne badania pozwalają na poszerzenie wiedzy o wykorzystaniu pokrzywy zwyczajnej w produkcji tekstylnej, zwłaszcza poprzez porównanie tej rośliny, oraz metod jej pozyskania i obróbki, z tymi znanymi dla lnu i konopi włóknistych. W pracy dodatkowo przedstawiono metody identyfikacji wykorzystywane w badaniach tekstyliów archeologicznych, takie jak modyfikowany test Herzoga, analiza obecności kryształów szczawianu wapnia oraz kształtu przekroju łodygi, aby pokazać ich możliwości, ale także ich ograniczenia dotyczące prawdopodobieństwa rozpoznania poszczególnych roślin włóknistych, ponieważ istnieje podejrzenie błędnej atrybucji wielu prehistorycznych tkanin. Z tego powodu informacje o technicznych własnościach wyrobów tekstylnych wykonanych z dostępnych w neolicie roślin włóknistych stanowią tutaj konieczne uzupełnienie. Z nielicznych przeprowadzonych badań wynika bowiem, że Urtica dioca ma właściwości podobne, jeśli nie lepsze, do lnu, konopi włóknistych, czy łyka drzew, szczególnie w zakresie wytrzymałości materiału. Razem ze znacznie dłuższym dostępnym okresem zbioru, te cechy sprawiają, iż pokrzywa zwyczajna mogła być atrakcyjnym źródłem włókien dla neolitycznych społeczności europejskich i w tym kontekście powinna być częściej uwzględniana w pracach i badaniach dotyczących tej epoki.Show less
Archaeological material dating to the Bronze Age (BA) suggest that violence was a reoccurring phenomenon in the period. This evidence includes the amass deposition in hoards of the newly emerged...Show moreArchaeological material dating to the Bronze Age (BA) suggest that violence was a reoccurring phenomenon in the period. This evidence includes the amass deposition in hoards of the newly emerged bronze weapons. Brück and Fontijn (2013) have explained this deposition as reflecting the end of the life-path of bronze objects. They assume that object during the BA were imbued with power and meaning through the actions done with the object, i.e. its life-history. Through the interaction between objects and individuals, the social fabric of the BA was formed. This model explains the selective depositions of bronze objects, but it does not delineate why precisely weapons were deposited. While weapons have a clear social context where they could have derived meaning and power from, in the form of combat. Therefore, within this thesis the intended combative use of bronze weapons is explored, in particular bronze spears, in order to examine if a specif type of combat could have imbued bronze weapons with meaning. One of the martial contexts were bronze spears could have been used in is formalised combats. These are combats fought with highly specific norms, called combat capital, for a large array of socio-political and -cultural reasons, named societal capital. Formalised fights act as a safe and controlled manner of violence expression in society. The highly specific combat capital with which the fights are fought, manifest itself in various combat styles that can be linked to a weapon design. The two primary combat styles are binding, whereby contact between the weapons of two fighters is continuously maintained to feel the actions of an opponent, and striking, whereby hitting an opponents weapon is used as the manner for gaining control. Binding is more associated with formalised combat, due to necessity of only combating one opponent, while striking combat can be used in all types of combat. In order to examine for which combat style bronze spears were intended for, a weapons design analysis (WDA) method was used. This method analysis weapons according to five elements, to form a framework of limitations wherein the weapon could have been used. This WDA relies on a different epistemic dimension than conscious deliberation. A knowledge dimensions that is largely unconscious and comes to individuals as feelings and sensations. The WDA thus must be performed by expert-users, that pose a minimum level of skill, i.e. knowledge, in this unconscious dimensions. A WDA, composing of four phenomenological archaeological experiments, was performed by two expert users on two replica bronze spears to gain insight into the combative use of BA spears in general. This WDA concluded, especially based on damage sustained by the spears during the experiments, that bronze spears were probably primarily intended for formalised fights, but with the potential to be used for other martial contexts. Other weapons, however, were probably more optimised 122 for these other types of fights. These formalised fights could have been one of the events wherein the social fabric of Bronze Age society was negotiated, and weapon could procure their power and meaning from.Show less
The site of Mai Adrasha is an important settlement in the northern highlands of Ethiopia. It has a relatively abundant plant resources, especially crop resources. Many archaeological researches...Show moreThe site of Mai Adrasha is an important settlement in the northern highlands of Ethiopia. It has a relatively abundant plant resources, especially crop resources. Many archaeological researches have been undertaken in this region. There are a large number of grinding tool excavated from this site. Grinding tools have played an important role in local people’s daily life for many years. In order to analyze the function these grinding tools, use wear analysis is needed now. This technique was started and developed from the 1930s and it is now relatively mature. In this thesis, I try to use this technique to analyze some grinding tools excavated from the Mai Adrasha. Based on the reference collection in the laboratory at Leiden University, I find that these grinding tools might be used for food preparation. People at that time might use these tools to grind cereals like finger millet and tef into flour. Although if we want to know the details of these plant species, a further study is necessary and residue analysis is also important.Show less
As evident from archaeological excavation, red ochre, or hematite-rich ironstones, was widely used for ceremonial, mortuary, and other purposes in the Dutch Linearbandkeramik (LBK). Two regional...Show moreAs evident from archaeological excavation, red ochre, or hematite-rich ironstones, was widely used for ceremonial, mortuary, and other purposes in the Dutch Linearbandkeramik (LBK). Two regional groups of LBK settlements are known within the Netherlands, Graetheide and Caberg. Although these sites have some remarkable differences, they also have some remarkable similarities, making it that the jury is still out on whether they should be classified as a different regional groups or not. This study aims to help in this line of questioning by analysing the differences between the red ochre finds of a set of sites from both groups. The samples have been studied morphologically and have been analysed by handheld X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (HH-XRF). A subset of the sample has also been analysed using laboratory X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) in order to evaluate the reliability of the HH-XRF results. This resulted in three groups of red ochre with different geological origin being identified. Two of these had been formed through chemical sedimentation, one of which has ooidal grains while the other does not. The third group is of (sicili)clastic sedimentary origin. Both optical (morphological) examination and HH-XRF have been found suitable for identification of all three categories. There appear to be no significant differences between the sites from the two regional groups in terms of types of red ochre found. This could be the result of tradition in exploitation of similar sources or exchange networks, but could also be pertaining to the differences in functionality of the three categories. As no specialisation is known between LBK settlements or households, the uniform distribution of red ochre over the categories could also be a representation of the different uses of the different types.Show less
In this thesis the results of a microscopic analysis of ornaments from the Dutch Funnel Beaker culture (3350-2750 cal. BC) are presented. It is tried to get a better understanding of the meaning of...Show moreIn this thesis the results of a microscopic analysis of ornaments from the Dutch Funnel Beaker culture (3350-2750 cal. BC) are presented. It is tried to get a better understanding of the meaning of the TRB ornaments. By using the concept of cultural biography of objects, insight is gained into how ornaments were treated during this period. Several patterns were distinguished in the choice of raw material, the shape of ornaments, the amount of use and the deposition of ornaments. Most ornaments were made of amber, followed by jet and stone. A strong preference for disc-shaped beads was observed, followed by cylindrical-shaped beads. Other shapes, such as pendants, were only sporadically observed. The technological analysis resulted in the conclusion that ornaments were made following a rather straightforward production sequence of cutting, grinding and biconical perforating. Almost all ornaments were used to some degree. No clear pattern was found as to how, how long and how many ornaments were worn by a single individual. The few indications suggest a variety of ways to wear ornaments. After use, more than half of all ornaments were reground. Dutch Funnel Beaker ornaments are mainly found in the hunebedden. During social gatherings burials and rituals were performed at these megalithic structures, emphasizing and reinforcing the collective identity of the social group. It has been argued that the axes, flints and pottery deposited commemorated communal values, beliefs and activities. In this thesis a similar interpretation is suggested for the amber and jet ornaments. The only local source of amber and jet during the Dutch TRB was the coastal area. Exploiting this area was an important part of TRB existence. It is argued that the specific provenance of amber and jet would have created an association between this material and the coastal area. In this manner the ornaments could have come to symbolize the activity of travelling to and from and exploiting the coast. And in my opinion the ornaments in the hunebedden refer to this aspect of everyday life.Show less
The goal of this thesis is to try and obtain raw quantifiable data on the effects of various pH levels on the flint tools and traces of use on those tools in order to give recommendations on...Show moreThe goal of this thesis is to try and obtain raw quantifiable data on the effects of various pH levels on the flint tools and traces of use on those tools in order to give recommendations on cleaning procedures. In order to do this tools have been experimentally used and subsequently cleaned for use-wear analysis. The changes to the traces of use were observed through the use of a metallographic microscope. In order to make accurate claims on the effects of these cleaning procedures on the traces of use, it was important to determine the exact nature of polish. An attempt has been made to try and answer this by making use of an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) and image the microscopic surface of the flint tools. Sadly the experimental set-up proved to be insufficient to answer this question. As such approximate conclusions and recommendations had to be given for each theory on the formation of polish.Show less
This thesis aims to balance the lack of published data on flint finds from Dutch megalithic monuments, the hunebedden, that were built during the Middle Neolithic. Technological and typological...Show moreThis thesis aims to balance the lack of published data on flint finds from Dutch megalithic monuments, the hunebedden, that were built during the Middle Neolithic. Technological and typological aspects from hunebed D19, D26, G2 and G3 are described in detail, considering the entire flint assemblages, not only focussing on formal tools. Results from use wear analysis of a selection of objects from these sites are included. The representativity of these four sites is assessed by a small-scale literature survey describing the flint finds from eleven other megaliths although data other than a typological description is scarce. The results of the study of the archaeological material and the literature survey are contextualized by comparing it to several other contexts: other TRB-sites (flat graves, settlements, hoards), development of burial conventions into the Late Neolithic and a modest description of megalithic research in northern Europe. This research leads to the conclusion that the set of items that is included in a hunebed is fairly wide when compared to TRB flat graves as well as graves from later periods. Some items show traces of use from varying activities but most pieces seem to be deposited unused. Since the assemblages contain many flakes and numerous technological indicators for flint-working, flint-knapping probably took place at the megaliths. Some artefacts, like certain transverse arrowheads, were most likely not made for actual use but especially for deposition in the megalith. Polished flint axes form a separate category; they are heavily used and were in numerous cases carefully resharpened before deposition in the megalith.Show less
The Vlaardingen (VL) period poses many interpretational challenges. That does not result from a poor array of data. On the contrary, good preservation conditions in many sites offer a wealth of...Show moreThe Vlaardingen (VL) period poses many interpretational challenges. That does not result from a poor array of data. On the contrary, good preservation conditions in many sites offer a wealth of information. That information, (artefacts, settlement configurations etc) can be subject to divergent interpretations though, and a clear picture of subsistence and habitation mode or inter-site relations is lacking. Even more obscure is the relationship between the VL group and other groups or ‘cultures’ of the upland area, in what is nowadays the Netherlands and other neighboring regions. Consequently every new excavation, such as the one of Hellevoetsluis-Ossenhoek (hereafter Hellevoetsluis), can provide invaluable information. Use-wear analysis has been shown to possess considerable potential in contributing to discussion on the aforementioned issues in the Dutch Delta (cf. Van Gijn 1998, 2008a). This thesis has a dual aim: the first is to analyze the position of the VL group within the process of ‘neolithization’. In that way a series of questions (habitation mode, subsistence strategies and cultural aspects) can take a more refined shape or addressed to some degree if possible. The second is to use the use-wear results from the site of Hellevoetsluis, in order to evaluate the results of the preceding discussion in a constructive manner. In addition, some new assumptions or questions might become part of the discussion in this second data-laden part. The structure of this thesis is as follows: a comprehensive discussion of the state and potential of use-wear studies will precede, in order to outline the main interpretative tool. After a brief description of the general characteristics of the VL group, a detailed discussion of the neolithization process in the Lower Rhine Basin. This discussion will subsequently be narrowed down on a presentation of the chipped stone industries of the VL group and the use-wear analyses conducted so far, so that a framework for the discussion of more refined questions can be set up. The presentation of the use wear results will occupy the final part, along with a discussion of the inferences in comparison to the theoretical problematic presented in the previous chapters.Show less
This thesis deals with the Mesolithic barbed points which were found by amateur archaeologists at the area of Europoort in the Netherlands. The main goal of the thesis was to find out the possible...Show moreThis thesis deals with the Mesolithic barbed points which were found by amateur archaeologists at the area of Europoort in the Netherlands. The main goal of the thesis was to find out the possible ways of production and use of the barbed points by producing and using copies via experiments. Overall fifteen artifacts were loaned out from the Archaeological Museum of Leiden in order to be studied for the purposes of the thesis. They were made of antler and bone (mostly metapodia). The original barbed points were checked for possible traces under stereo microscope and metallographic analysis took place as well. The next step was to produce five experimental barbed points based on the information which their analyses gave. Hence, the groove and splinter technique was used for the two antler barbed points and the metapodial technique for the two barbed points made of bone. The fifth experimental tool was made out of a rib bone, which was cut in pieces in order to take the proper piece needed for the manufacture. All of them were grinded on a sand stone in order to take the proper shape and a flint blade was used to make the barbs. After that they were hafted on spears and arrows, depending on their size, and the shooting experiments took place near the city of Arnhem in the Netherlands. The experimental tools proved to be really effective. The used barbed points were analyzed and documented photographically the same way as the original artifacts. When the Mesolithic and the experimental barbed points were compared, it came out that they bear in a considerable amount the same kind of traces. Most of them were caused during the production process (grinding or scratches due to the flint tool which was used), while there is a few amount of impact scars and use wear traces. The only exception, as far as the scratches are concerned, is that the original artifacts bear a lot of randomly directed scratches, while the experimental barbed points barely have any. Therefore, it was assumed that they were a result of depositional modifications. Finally, in the discussion part of the thesis a variety of ways is suggested on how the experimental tools can be used to benefit the public, in the context of heritage management.Show less
The plan area of Lanakerveld is located in South-Limburg, Maastricht. Three LBK sites, belonging to the Hezerwater cluster of settlements, have been excavated and use-wear analysis was performed on...Show moreThe plan area of Lanakerveld is located in South-Limburg, Maastricht. Three LBK sites, belonging to the Hezerwater cluster of settlements, have been excavated and use-wear analysis was performed on a selected sample of the flint assemblage. Based on the latest advances of research concerning the LBK as well as the relationship between the first farmers and the neighboring native communities in The Netherlands, the results of the functional analysis are used in combination with two previous studies from LBK sites. The fact that during these early stages of the “Neolithization” of the area the native groups remained separated for a long period is supported by making an effort to understand the circumstances and reasons of this long lasting “availability stage”. Also, it is argued that eventually the indigenous hunter gatherers adopted the “Neolithic package”, but piecemeal through a long process of adaptation. The first core argument is based on the novelty and originality of the LBK expressed in the use of flint tools in order to support the theory of a migration wave in this area. Second, an effort is made to examine and view the lifestyle, economy and culture of the incoming communities from the perspective of the indigenous groups in order to decompose the idea of the “superior farmers” versus the “favored hunter-gatherers.Show less
This thesis describes the results of an analysis of the Linearbandkeramik querns from Elsloo. A sample from the village (excavated material from the St. Jozefschool and the Riviusstraat) was...Show moreThis thesis describes the results of an analysis of the Linearbandkeramik querns from Elsloo. A sample from the village (excavated material from the St. Jozefschool and the Riviusstraat) was compared to the total assemblage from the cemetery. All stages in their biography were taken into account, from the selection of the raw materials to the way they were treated after their use-life had come to an end. The research has shown that the querns passed through an interesting life-cycle. Sandstone cobbles were collected from the gravel deposits of the river Meuse. A medium grain size was preferred. The ideal shape and size were obtained through hard percussion and the milling surface was pecked with a hammer stone to create a rough surface. The implements were subsequently employed to mill cereals, during which they were probably placed on a piece of hide or linen to catch the wheat grains and flour. Through use the milling surface became smooth, therefore it was recurrently rejuvenated. At some point their use came to an end. The grinding slabs from both assemblages differed substantially in their thickness, suggesting that exhaustion was not the sole reason why their use-life ended. The implements displayed a lot of fractures, of which some might were caused by rejuvenation, but for the majority this was not the case. From the number of fractures and their thicknesses was inferred that most of the artefacts were intentionally broken. Red ochre appeared on both assemblages and since use-wear caused by grinding this pigment was recognised on none of the tools, it must have been applied in an already powdered form. Traces were also found on some fractures, indicating that ochre was applied after they were broken. It did not occur on all implements and if it was present it seemed to be distributed over a random number of surfaces. However, in both assemblages it was mostly present on the milling surfaces. The comparison between the settlement and the cemetery assemblages revealed some interesting dissimilarities. First, there was a difference in the duration of use; the querns from the graveyard were used longer than those from the village. The second striking dissimilarity was visible in their treatment after the use-life had come to an end; the implements from the settlement were much more fragmented than those from the cemetery, while red ochre occurred more often and extensively on the graveyard assemblage. In this thesis I proposed four hypotheses to explain the peculiar practice to which the querns were subjected. The first two were applicable on both assemblages, while the others were more focused on the implements from the village. The first explanatory model linked the peculiar practice to a phase in the biography of the house. This biography was intertwined with the social life of the inhabitants and transitions to new stages could be accompanied by depositional activities. Possibly the quern fragments represent such a deposit. The second explanation linked the treatment to a specific attitude towards agriculture in LBK society. Possibly it refers to remnants of a Mesolithic way of thinking. Since milling was indirectly related to destruction of the forest it maybe was considered a dangerous activity and to appease the spirits the implements went through a special ritual at the end of their use-life. It can however also be interpreted in the opposite way and encompass an essentially Neolithic conception of the world. It seems likely that the principle of regeneration formed an essential part of Neolithic way of thinking. The activity to which the artefacts were subjected perhaps represents a deliberate offering concerned with giving sandstone back to the earth and thereby ensuring a continued supply. The third hypothesis interpreted the practice as an expression of a particular view on objects; possibly stones were considered as living subjects in LBK society. Problems like accidental breakage during rejuvenation perhaps were seen to reflect on the social relation between people and the stone, rather than on any analysis of the properties of the material itself. Maybe an accidentally broken quern was considered unusable or dangerous and therefore further destroyed and rubbed with red ochre. The fourth hypothesis connected the breakage of the implements from the settlement to a particular view on personhood. It may indicate that personhood was fractal and that the querns were imbued with a part of a person’s identity. Possibly they were deliberately fragmented in order to establish social relationships and the parts were kept as tokens of the bonds, forming inalienable links between all owners or users. It could be concluded that the treatment of the querns was informed by ways of understanding that differ from our own logic. The motivations were however rational for Linearbandkeramians, deriving from their particular perspective on the world. In this manner the peculiar ritual to which querns were subjected does not merely inform us about their roles in society, but also about LBK rationality. Obviously a deeper significance was assigned to the artefacts; their function for milling cereals was intertwined with other meanings, together encompassing their role in the lives of LBK people.Show less
This thesis deals with the use-wear analysis conducted on a selection of the assemblage found at the Hamburg site of Stroe. Use-wear analysis revealed the functions of most analysed tools. These...Show moreThis thesis deals with the use-wear analysis conducted on a selection of the assemblage found at the Hamburg site of Stroe. Use-wear analysis revealed the functions of most analysed tools. These functions often were different from what would be expected based on the typology. Therefore, use-wear analysis is very important; it can reveal “hidden identities” of tools as it were. At the site of Stroe, many post-depositional processes were recognised but nevertheless the assemblage seemed representative enough to investigate matters such as the completeness of the variety of tools, type site and subsistence strategies. The site yielded many scrapers that were mostly used on hide. A large amount of tools was hafted, amongst which also many scrapers. Also the tips of Zinken tools and borers were hafted and not used for drilling or piercing. The site therefore seems to have been used for scraping hides mostly. However, it seems odd that a special activity site was set up for the purpose of hide working. Therefore, a number of hypotheses are presented that could explain this observation. The site of Stroe lies in the southernmost part of the area where the Hamburg tradition is believed to have occurred. Therefore the site is of big interest, because it can clarify questions concerning the „border‟ of the Hamburg tradition. However, it seems that influences of other cultures are not reflected in the material culture and if they were, they would probably not be recognised, because the Hamburg culture is quite similar to other more or less contemporaneous cultures.Show less
This thesis includes a technological and functional analysis of blades from the Late Uruk period settlement of Jebel Aruda in northern Syria. The settlement of Jebel Aruda has, together with...Show moreThis thesis includes a technological and functional analysis of blades from the Late Uruk period settlement of Jebel Aruda in northern Syria. The settlement of Jebel Aruda has, together with contemporary and neighbouring settlements like Habuba Kabira-süd, been interpreted as a southern Mesopotamian colonial emplacement in northern Mesopotamia, also known as ‘the Tabqa enclave’. Of these Jebel Aruda has been interpreted as a special administrative or religious centre, because of its unusual location and its large residential buildings centred around a temple. Together with the ‘Tabqa enclave’ many other southern Mesopotamian colonies have been discovered in northern Mesopotamia and on such a large scale that this phenomenon has been called an ‘Uruk expansion’. The underlying reasons for the Uruk expansion have been the subject of debate for many years. Among the theories seeking to explain the expansion, the ideas by Guillermo Algaze have been the most influential. According to Algaze the expansion was primarily motivated by the demand for important trade goods which were lacking in the south of Mesopotamia, through long-distance trade. Moreover in this view, the character of the expansion was one of a southern Mesopotamian dominance over the indigenous northern Mesopotamian communities, regarded as the periphery. The ‘Tabqa enclave’ specifically has always been regarded as unfit for agriculture, and dependent on trade for its survival. Interestingly, the Uruk period in northern Mesopotamia also saw the birth of a specialized and standardized blade product, the Canaanean blade. During the period immediately succeeding the Uruk expansion in northern Mesopotamia, the Ninevite V period, this blade type was produced specifically for the agricultural practice of threshing. The technological and functional analysis of the blades from Jebel Aruda indicate that the Canaanean blade also played a central role in agricultural activities during the Late Uruk period, functioning both as sickles and as threshing sledge implements. It further seems that the Canaanean blade was an important trade product already during the Late Uruk period. Its production was gradually intensified, and the blades were traded on a regional scale in the north. Not only has the functional analysis proven that agriculture was practiced around Jebel Aruda and at the ‘Tabqa enclave’, it seems to indicate that agriculture might have been the primary motivation behind the Uruk expansion. Finally, analysis of the blades suggests that Jebel Aruda’s lithic assemblage was very similar to other southern Mesopotamian colonies in the north, indicating that its character might not have been as different as assumed.Show less
The Bandkeramik culture came to the Netherlands as a complete package. This new culture settled itself at the Graetheide plateau in the south of the Netherlands on the fertile loess grounds. Geleen...Show moreThe Bandkeramik culture came to the Netherlands as a complete package. This new culture settled itself at the Graetheide plateau in the south of the Netherlands on the fertile loess grounds. Geleen-Janskamperveld is one of these Bandkeramik settlements. All aspects of the Bandkeramik culture are very similar between the different settlements so models are very suitable to analyzee the Bandkeramik culture. One of these aspects which has different models, is the settlement structure. The Hofplatz model is used for centuries as the main model for the Bandkeramik culture. Within this model clusters of houses represent successive houses and thus continuity on a single location. There is still some disagreement whether one or several houses were in use at one time within such a cluster. Rück proposed a different model in which the settlement is structured along lines. He also proposed a different reconstruction of the houses and he assumes a longer use-life for the individual houses: up till a 100 years instead of the 25 years which is used most. Within this research a use-wear study of the flint artefacts found at Geleen-Janskamperveld is executed with the hope of finding some specialization between different houses. This information could help with finding which of these models is best suitable for this excavation. Some use-wear study was already done in the past. The results of the previous study are used for this new research. The predominant contact material found at Geleen-Janskamperveld is hide, followed by cereal harvesting tools. This is in line with other Bandkeramik sites in the Netherlands which were studied in the same way. Other contact materials like wood, reed, bark, meat, bone, clay, mineral materials and the mysterious contact materials which produces ‘polish 10’ and ‘polish 23’ were also recognised. Unfortunately no real specialization was found between the different houses of Geleen-Janskamperveld. The rest of the analysis therefore is based on the literature. Rück proposed new models for different aspects of the settlement. He argues that houses were built on poles instead of on the ground. His main argument, steep slopes on which the houses were built in Bandkeramik times, is not valid for the Dutch LBK. His argument about the duration of a house generation is more plausible. The old arguments for a house generation are a bit outdated. Houses probably would have last longer. A visual analysis is executed to find possible settlement structures at Geleen-Janskamperveld. This resulted in several maps which clearly show that the model of Rück is not plausible for this excavation. No real alignments are apparent. A model in which clusters of several houses success each other is more plausible. This is supported by other features such as ditches.Show less
