The aim of this thesis is to examine the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) theory and its usefulness in the analysis of past populations. The DOHaD hypothesis states that many...Show moreThe aim of this thesis is to examine the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) theory and its usefulness in the analysis of past populations. The DOHaD hypothesis states that many modern day diseases and a negative health in adulthood can be attributed to stressful events that happened earlier in pregnancy, infancy or childhood. This thesis analyses if individuals that were affected by physiological stress during childhood were more likely to develop tuberculosis. Individuals from two Dutch skeletal collections are studied: Middenbeemster, a post medieval rural community and Alkmaar, a medieval city. To identify childhood stress in the past, several non-specific indicators of stress are examined in juveniles and adults: stature, Harris lines, cribra orbitalia and dental enamel hypoplasia. Although these skeletal markers have multiple and overlapping aetiologies, the presence and severity of these skeletal lesions may provide insight into the resistance to stress and which sort of environmental stress could have been a risk factor to tuberculosis. Further, it is examined if any of the skeletal markers can be associated with a specific category of tuberculous lesions. Skeletal tuberculosis is divided in definitive, probable and possible lesions. Statistical analyses were performed to determine if there was a difference in the prevalence of each stress marker in the group affected with tuberculosis (definitive, possible or probable cases) and the group of individuals that was not affected by this infection. Statistical results demonstrates that delayed growth may have been a risk factor to tuberculosis in the Alkmaar population, though it was not statistically significant. The prevalence rates of Harris lines, cribra orbitalia (CO) and dental enamel hypoplasia (DEH) were high in the Alkmaar population, in contrast to the Middenbeemster population. However, these three stress markers were associated with tuberculosis in the Middenbeemster sample, in contrast to Alkmaar. CO and DEH were particularly associated with possible tuberculous lesions (new bone formation on the ribs and vascularization of or pits/grooves on the vertebral bodies). Additionally, CO could also be associated with definitive tuberculous lesions. Results show that childhood stresses, such as poor nutrition or disease could have been a risk factor that made individuals more susceptible to tuberculosis. This thesis also discusses the interpretational and methodological limitations of using the DOHaD on the skeletal remains of past populations. Factors that may have influenced the interpretation if early stress increases the risk to tuberculosis are considered.Show less
The aim of this study is to assess the relationship between osteoarthritis (OA) and age. Archaeological studies with a similar aim had been conducted before. However, none of these studied the...Show moreThe aim of this study is to assess the relationship between osteoarthritis (OA) and age. Archaeological studies with a similar aim had been conducted before. However, none of these studied the progression of osteoarthritis in relation to advancing age. Understanding the relationship between OA progression and age apart from OA prevalence and age, might show the differences in strength of age as a factor predisposing individuals to develop OA compared to other factors stimulating the degeneration of the joint. Knowledge of the strength of the correlation between osteoarthritis and age is especially useful for it enables discrimination between joints that are under great influence of age and those that show a less clear or no correlation. Those joints exhibiting a strong correlation should therefore preferably be avoided in archaeological studies where osteoarthritis is used as a marker of occupational activity. In order to test the strength of age related osteoarthritis and OA progression, a 18th-19th known age skeletal population from Middenbeemster, Netherlands, was studied an analyzed. All peripheral synovial joints were studied for osteoarthritis and the progression of OA was assessed with help of existing grading methods and a combination of OA identification criteria primarily based on Waldron (2009). The prevalence and progression of OA in relation with advancing age was studied per joint and per sex. Patterns observed were compared with clinical and archaeological studies in order to see if the patterns and results observed in the Middenbeemster sample were similar to or deviated from patterns observed in these clinical and archaeological studies. The outcome of the statistical analysis and the observed patterns showed that a strong correlation between the prevalence and progression of OA in relation to age was observable for the acromio-clavicular joint, sterno-clavicular joint, temporo-mandibular joint and the acetabulo-femoral joint. This trend persisted when studied separately for males and females. The strong correlations between osteoarthritis in these joints and age have been supported by clinical and archaeological studies. However, for the humero-ulnar joint (HUJ), distal radio-ulnar joint (DRUJ), gleno-humeral joint (GHJ), tibio-femoral joint (TFJ) and patello-femoral joint (PFJ) weak correlations for age related osteoarthritis were observed suggesting that other influences than age stimulated the development and progression of OA in these joints. For the remaining humero-radial joint, proximal radio-ulnar joint, radio-carpal joint, ulno-carpal joint and talo-crucal joint no correlations were found between OA and age. These joints can therefore be used to study occupational activity related osteoarthritis in archaeological populations. The HUJ, DRUJ, GHJ, TFJ and PFJ might be used to study occupational activity related OA, despite their weak correlation, for the patterns observed for these joints in the Middenbeemster sample in combination with clinical and archaeological studies suggest a stronger influence of other factors than age predisposing individuals to develop OA at these locations.Show less
Humans are adapters. We not only adapt ourselves to the environment, more often than not we adapt the environment itself to suit our needs, our wishes, and our ideas. This urge to change does not...Show moreHumans are adapters. We not only adapt ourselves to the environment, more often than not we adapt the environment itself to suit our needs, our wishes, and our ideas. This urge to change does not stop with the environment. The human body itself is often used as a canvas where we express who we are, where we express our identity. This thesis discussed one type of such expression of identity: artificial cranial modification (often abbreviated as "ACM"). As the modification can only be done successfully on individuals younger than three years old, it does not express individual identity but rather the group identity the individual's parents belonged to. This makes cranial modification an interesting field of research, which can tell archaeologists many things about past populations. The two populations studied in this thesis originate from the Bolivian Andes; an area with a high percentage of modified crania but a low percentage of research. The aim of this work is thus to add to the information of cranial modification in the Bolivian Andes, which was done through the study of 60 mostly Tiwanaku-period (500 - 1000 CE) crania from two different Andean regions: the Altiplano, and the Cochabamba valles. The Cochabamba valles, although emulating the Tiwanaku culture, remained very much independent, a fact which is confirmed in the results of this thesis. The most striking difference turned out to be the influence of sex on modification presence, which was found to be statistically significant in the valles sample and not in the Altiplano crania. Other differences were found as well: annular modification is much more frequent in the Altiplano, with tabular being more popular in the valles. The annular types are mostly cylindrical in the valles whereas the conical variant is more common in the Altiplano. Occipitally curved tabular modifications only occur in the Altiplano, with the lambdoidally flattened variant being most common. Frontally curved tabular modifications, then, only occur in the valles. Lastly, erect modifications occurred relatively more in the Altiplano sample, where it made up half of the tabular subtypes, than in the valles. Osteological effects of ACM on the cranium were studied as well. These did not indicate regional results, showing that, all cultural differences aside, the populations were not too different from each other. The non-metric traits that seemed to be influenced by cranial modification in the sample are the prevalence of the left infraorbital foramen, right pterygo-spinous bridge and left tympanic dehiscence, as well as the metopic suture retention. The results show that although the populations lived near, and were in contact with, each other, regional cultural differences do exist. Extrapolating findings of the Altiplano's Tiwanaku culture to the rest of the Bolivian Andes is thus not correct, something that should be kept in mind for future (much needed) research in the area. This thesis was made possible by the archaeological museum INIAM of the Universidad Mayor de San Simón in Cochabamba and the zooarchaeological laboratory from the Universidad Mayor de San Andres in La Paz, which granted access to their collections.Show less
This research examines fracture risks in post-Medieval the Netherlands. The challenges of daily life as well as interpersonal violence means humans are always at risk of fractures to the skeleton....Show moreThis research examines fracture risks in post-Medieval the Netherlands. The challenges of daily life as well as interpersonal violence means humans are always at risk of fractures to the skeleton. Given the occurrence of fractures across societies archaeologists have the opportunity to compare the fracture risk between populations and investigate the effects of social and economic standing. Research into long bone fractures in the Netherlands has been done for medieval sites, but not for post medieval sites. This research addresses this gap in fracture research. The main question of this research is: What can the analysis of long bone fractures tell us about life in various places in post-medieval the Netherlands. The first sub question tests the hypothesis that the position, and pattern of fractures was influenced by the socioeconomic status and lifestyle of the inhabitants of Middenbeemster. The second and third sub questions compare the frequency and distribution of long bone fractures (clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula) from four post-medieval the Netherlands sites (Eindhoven, Gouda, Middenbeemster and Roosendaal) from different socioeconomic backgrounds (e.g. low and high status) and living environments (e.g. urban and rural). The data from the Middenbeemster sample was collected by the author the other data was drawn from reports and books. There were three main findings in this research. First, it found that the assemblage from Middenbeemster has fractures that are consistent with traditional farming injuries, but differed from those described in other bioarchaeological studies, suggesting that farming in post-medieval the Netherlands might have been different or posted different dangers from those in other places. Second it found that the urban site of Eindhoven had significantly more long bone fractures compared to the rural site of Middenbeemster. There was also a difference in the distribution of fractures between the sites. This suggests that in post-medieval the Netherlands urban living had more risks of long bone fractures than rural living. Third, there was no difference in the long bone fracture rate between the high status site of Gouda and the low status site of Roosendaal. This shows that socioeconomic status did not have a significant effect on fracture risk. This thesis has broadened our understanding of fracture risk in post-medieval the Netherlands by providing some preliminary conclusions about the relationship between environmental and socioeconomic factors and fracture risk. This research, however, still requires more comparative data sets to confirm these preliminary conclusions, and test new hypotheses.Show less
Since the 1950 and 60’s, when the link between porotic hyperostosis and ‘anemia’ was established both clinically and archaeologically, the term ‘anemia’ has become somewhat of a default diagnosis;...Show moreSince the 1950 and 60’s, when the link between porotic hyperostosis and ‘anemia’ was established both clinically and archaeologically, the term ‘anemia’ has become somewhat of a default diagnosis; an umbrella under which a multitude of aetiologically and pathophysiologically distinct hemoglobinopathic and red blood cell disorders are meant to reside. This is problematic since bioarchaeologists endeavor not only to diagnose disease, but to link them to the socio-cultural and environmental framework within which they are inherently and inseparably entrenched. A method for more accurately diagnosing, and possibly even differentiating between, ‘anemias’ is therefore a crucial step towards more accurately understanding the relationship between individuals, their bodies, and their world. The purpose of this thesis was to determine if, and how, the pathophysiology of homozygotic and heterozygotic sickle cell and/or thalassemia affects the assimilation, diffusion and/or metabolization of stable carbon (δ13C), oxygen (δ18O) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotopes, using bone collagen and enamel apatite as indicators. To the best of the author’s knowledge, this research represents the first extensive isotopic study of sickle cell and/or thalassemia in the archaeological record, as well as the first to amalgamate and critically assess the relevant biomedical research surrounding the pathophysiological fractionation of stable isotopes in ‘anemics’. Results, obtained from 45 individuals from el Plaza de Espana (8th-12th centuries A.D.) in Écija, Spain, suggests that bone collagen δ15N values are significantly different between Anemic and Control groups, however, breastfeeding could not be conclusively ruled out as the cause of the trophic level shift. No significant differences in bone collagen or enamel apatite δ13C values were noted between cohorts or tooth types, however, sample size is considered to be a contributing factor to the lack of significance. There were no significant differences in enamel apatite δ18O between tooth types, however, significant differences were noted between cohorts. Overall, while disease should be considered an underlying cause of local and systemic isotopic fractionation, more research is required prior to the adoption of stable isotope analysis as a palaeopathological diagnostic method.Show less
In modern clinical sources, the prevalence of infectious ear diseases is usually higher in urban environments as opposed to rural environments. Due to overcrowding, poor hygiene and high intensity...Show moreIn modern clinical sources, the prevalence of infectious ear diseases is usually higher in urban environments as opposed to rural environments. Due to overcrowding, poor hygiene and high intensity of contact with other people, infectious diseases tend to spread more easily in such environments. In this research, the research questions is: Are we able to see differences in the prevalence of infectious ear diseases between the skeletal populations from an urban and a rural site? Also, the populations are examined to which ear diseases can be identified in skeletal populations. The skeletal populations used are from Alkmaar and Middenbeemster. The population from Alkmaar originates from the 15th and 16th century, and consists of 37 usable skeletons. The population from Middenbeemster originates from mainly the 19th century and consists of 60 usable skeletons. The ear ossicles, tympanic cavities, external ears and mastoid processes are examined for pathological conditions. In total, the number of individuals affected by ear diseases was 18 in Alkmaar and 25 in Middenbeemster. Infectious diseases were found most frequently, followed by neoplasms and congenital diseases. Overall, more infectious diseases were found in Middenbeemster as opposed to Alkmaar. No significant differences in prevalence of infectious ear diseases or overall ear sickness were found. It can therefore be suggested that living environment did not affect the prevalence of infectious ear diseases and overall ear sickness in these historical populations. Possible explanations for the masking of these differences can be the osteological paradox, smoking, air pollution and socio-economic status. This research shows that ear diseases can be identified within skeletal populations from the Netherlands. Not only infectious diseases, but also congenital diseases and neoplasms are identified. This research can be a starting point for further research on ear diseases in general and infectious ear diseases specific.Show less
Sex determination of human skeletal remains is of fundamental importance in many bioarchaeological and medicolegal investigations. In the present study, a method based on discriminant function...Show moreSex determination of human skeletal remains is of fundamental importance in many bioarchaeological and medicolegal investigations. In the present study, a method based on discriminant function analysis of metric data from the foramen magnum, occipital condyles, intercondylar dimensions and mandibular canines is proposed to determine the sex of sub-adult and adult skeletons. These elements are thought to be sexual dimorphic in previous studies and are fully developed prior to puberty. Therefore they are selected for this method. The combination of measurements of these elements has not been tested before. The use of discriminant function analyses based on multiple measurements was beforehand expected to reach higher accuracies than independent measurements. The proposed method is tested on the nineteenth century Middenbeemster collection to determine its reproducibility, suitability and accuracy. The accuracy rates this study was aiming for was a minimum of 75-80%. The Middenbeemster skeletal collection was suitable for this study because skeletons could be linked to the archive of the cemetery. Therefore, of some skeletons age and sex were known, which was required for this study. The known age and sex skeletons were divided into a sub-adult and an adult sample. The results for the adult sample showed statistical significant difference between the sexes in measurements of the foramen magnum width, right occipital condyle length, maximum bicondylar breadth and minimum interior distance between the condyles. Also, all permanent mandibular canine measurements were significantly sexual dimorphic. The sub-adult sample showed no significant sexual dimorphism in the cranial base elements or the deciduous mandibular canines. Of the permanent mandibular canines three out of four measurements turned out to be statistically significantly different. Of the single-measurements methods, eight out of twelve measurements in of the permanent and deciduous canines reached the minimum success rate of 75- 80%, which makes them likely to be suitable for sex determination in adults as well as sub-adults. The measurements cranial base elements provided accuracy rates between 52.0% and 71.7% in the adult sample and 47.1% and 73.3% in the sub-adult sample. These were all lower than the minimum accuracy of 75-80% this study was aiming for and are therefore considered as too low to be acceptable as method for sex determination. The discriminant function analyses based on multiple measurements provided higher overall accuracies in both samples. Especially the combinations including permanent mandibular canine measurements reached high overall success rates, up to 100%. Combining all cranial base and permanent mandibular canine measurements reached an overall accuracy of 100% in the adult sample and 86.7% in the sub-adult sample, which are successful results when looking at the aim of the study. Overall, this study shows that the use of discriminant functions analysis based on measurements of the foramen magnum, occipital condyles and permanent mandibular canines for sex determination of adult and sub-adult skeletons is highly reliable. However, further research is needed on the applicability of the method on geographically diverse skeletal samples. Also, the use of deciduous canine dimensions should be studied more extensive to determine their suitability for sex determination in younger sub-adults.Show less
Bones grow in length and in width, growth in length occurs via longitudinal growth, growth in width is reached by an increase in cortical thickness via appositional growth. Longitudinal growth has...Show moreBones grow in length and in width, growth in length occurs via longitudinal growth, growth in width is reached by an increase in cortical thickness via appositional growth. Longitudinal growth has intensively been used as an indicator for children’s health and nutritional status in past populations. As appositional growth is also influenced by malnutrition and disease, it suggested that appositional bone growth might be used as an indicator for stress. The aim of this study was to confirm whether appositional growth could be used as an indicator for stress during childhood in a nineteenth century rural population from Middenbeemster, the Netherlands. This population is known to have suffered from malnutrition and epidemic outbreaks, which makes this population ideal for this research. In order to study longitudinal length, femoral length was plotted against dental age of Middenbeemster subadults. To study appositional growth, cortical thickness, measured on X-rays, was plotted against dental age. These were compared with long bone lengths and cortical thicknesses of modern populations. It appeared that Middenbeemster subadults between 7 and 11 years old were deficient in longitudinal growth compared to modern children, and that children younger than 7 years were not deficient in longitudinal growth. Middenbeemster children were deficient in appositional growth. This deficiency was greatest in children between 9 and 12 years old, but children younger than 7 were also deficient. The Middenbeemster subadults were generally more deficient in appositional growth than in longitudinal growth. This study showed that appositional growth could be used as an indicator for stress in a nineteenth century rural population. It appeared to be a more sensitive indicator than longitudinal growth. Hopefully, appositional growth will be more widely appreciated as an indicator for stress in health studies in past populations. However, more research in populations from different time periods or geographical areas will strengthen its position.Show less
The purpose of this thesis is to discuss vertebral osteoarthritis and its relation to activity patterns. Osteoarthritis is the most common disease affecting vertebrates and humans, and thus, a...Show moreThe purpose of this thesis is to discuss vertebral osteoarthritis and its relation to activity patterns. Osteoarthritis is the most common disease affecting vertebrates and humans, and thus, a closer inspection of its etiology and expression on past populations would further illustrate the causation of the disease. This present research attempts to explore osteoarthritis in a rural post medieval Dutch population with the aim to detect the behavioral patterns of this community. The Middenbeemster population is known to have been engaged in demanding physical activities as is expected for a rural community of the eighteen hundreds, hence a study on the relative skeletal material would prove the impact of these activities on the body, and especially on bones. For the present thesis 50 adult individuals (both sexes) were examined for evidence of spinal osteoarthritis and the results are the following: men exhibited higher percentages of osteoarthritic joints in comparison to women, and they were mostly affected in the lower regions of their spine. Women also showed a great number of degenerative changes, but mainly in their upper thoracic area. The results suggest exposure to different stress levels, which probably resulted from distinct activities. Additionally, the disease was found to be significantly more prevalent in older ages, although the presence of a considerable number of affected young individuals was also noted. Further research on the Middenbeemster population will be able to test the present results about gendered division in labor and thus, provide greater insights to the daily life of post medieval people.Show less
