The study of openwork amulets has historically been focused on general overviews of the material, and while their more ritual aspects have been noted in passing, it has not yet been studied in...Show moreThe study of openwork amulets has historically been focused on general overviews of the material, and while their more ritual aspects have been noted in passing, it has not yet been studied in-depth. It is this lack of writings on the topic which inspired the creation of this thesis. To address it, studies of the historical context, motifs present on the amulets, and relation with other ‘magical’ items of the period are conducted. In addition to this, an analysis of amulet graves in the region of Rheinhessen, Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria is performed. These investigations result in three primary conclusions. Firstly, that the religiously charged atmosphere during which the lifespan of the deposition of these amulets existed could have made for a time in which religious affiliation, through any means, would have been important. For women, the gender which these amulets are commonly associated, the idea of perception is especially important in the Merovingian period. Secondly, many of the motifs of these items seem to have either explicit or subtle religious meanings, and these motifs can often hold double interpretations as either ‘pagan’ or Christian items. Thirdly, works on other items considered amulets or generally apotropaic in the period show how many items can be considered apotropaic even without historical records explicitly stating that fact. The idea of cultic value arising from both symbological and material aspects of objects is also presented by existing literature, which further suggests the cultic relevance of openwork amulets through their antler rings. Finally, the studies of the research areas reveal the not uncommon association between openwork amulets and items with apotropaic value, such as Roman coins and cowrie shells, many of which could likely have been suspended from the amulets themselves. In spatial terms, what is discovered in this study also questions whether the Christian authorities would have taken offense to these amulets as they did to others. This is because many of these amulets are found in and around major Christian centres. Overall, the thesis concludes that the evidence highly suggests that openwork amulets could have been items which protected the individual with ‘magical’ motifs, or even were a way for individuals to signal their religious or cultural allegiance.Show less
There have been many studies done on Medieval Europe and the Kingdoms and cultures that lived during this period. The Merovingians and the Anglo-Saxons are two of these groups that lived as...Show moreThere have been many studies done on Medieval Europe and the Kingdoms and cultures that lived during this period. The Merovingians and the Anglo-Saxons are two of these groups that lived as neighbours in the same period. A lot of research has therefore been done on them. However, one element has been overlooked by both of them for many centuries: women. Women have been an overlooked part of history and society. Only in the last few decades did they get more attention. This thesis investigates the lives and deaths of women in the Merovingian and the early and middle Anglo-Saxon periods from an archaeological standpoint. It does this by looking at the different themes, such as burial practices, what their status was in society and the influence of Christianity. This thesis is a literary review that discusses two case studies; the Merovingian cemetery of Bergeijk-Fazantlaan and the Anglo-Saxon cemetery in Buckland, Dover. There are a lot of similarities between the two neighbouring groups. A similarity is that both groups highly sexualised their women. Additionally, women did not have a lot of power and control in their lives. Their societal status depended on their fathers and husbands' status. There were still a few differences between the two groups. The Anglo-Saxons still used cremation burials, while the Merovingians discarded them. Another difference is the appearance of knives in the Anglo-Saxon female graves in the case study. These knives show a difference in how women were seen in society. Merovingian women were encouraged to be helpless and to never bear arms. The knives show that the Anglo-Saxon women were encouraged to protect themselves and to be slightly more powerful in life. This thesis showed, that even though the neighbouring cultures had a lot in common, they did have differences. One of the biggest differences between the two is the difference in scholars. This is why cross-culture analyses are important as they show new sides to old research and give people new ideas to test in their respective fields.Show less
The hunebedden is a term used to refer to megalithic grave monuments or dolmens built by the funnel beaker culture in what is now the northern Netherlands. For hundreds if not thousands of years...Show moreThe hunebedden is a term used to refer to megalithic grave monuments or dolmens built by the funnel beaker culture in what is now the northern Netherlands. For hundreds if not thousands of years they were a mysterious phenomenon, sparking the imagination of many people and resulting in folk tales about mythical creatures such as giant or witte wieven (a kind of ghost that appears in folklore, specifically in or around the province of Drenthe) which in these stories would either have built the hunebedden or reside near them. In modern times a new landscape of non-scientific explanations about the hunebedden has formed, mainly within the realm of alien conspiracy theorists or new age spiritual circles. Both these categories of stories, historic and modern, can be considered a kind of mythology; a mythology that is inseparable from the geographical location of the hunebedden and the landscape they inhabit. Jean Kommers has written about the concept of mythical geography, defined as the intertwining of a person’s worldview and knowledge or perception of geographical locations. Kommers frames this as a form of knowledge that is present in non-western cultures as an epistemological phenomenon, but this thesis argues that the phenomenon is also present in the Netherlands, using the hunebedden and spiritual or fringe-scientific ideas about these monuments to illustrate this. This thesis analyses both old and new myths about the hunebedden to compare how mythical geography plays a role in the epistemological landscape of the Netherlands from the middle ages on, analysing how the attitudes towards the hunebedden and their role in the landscape is both similar and different between the stories in these to categories. Attention is paid to two different roles the mythical aspects of the stories play: one in which the hunebedden are created by something superhuman and in which they have a superhuman role themselves, for example as being built by giants or advanced ancient civilizations or as centers for paranormal activity because of present entities such as the witte wieven or energetic phenomena such as ley lines. Another phenomenon emerges where the hunebedden become physical pieces of proof for one’s worldview through these myths. Ultimately both the new and old stories change the way the geographical dimension of the hunebedden is seen and in both cases mythical geography is present.Show less
Generally, many studies have been conducted on megalithic monuments worldwide, and more specifically in certain regions. In Atlantic Europe, there has been much research done on Neolithic megaliths...Show moreGenerally, many studies have been conducted on megalithic monuments worldwide, and more specifically in certain regions. In Atlantic Europe, there has been much research done on Neolithic megaliths; however, much of this has not included cross-study analyses, especially relating to certain types including hunebedden, allée couvertes, and portal tombs. They mainly focus on the immediate region certain tombs dominate. This thesis intends to broaden this scope by investigating both specific and broader similarities and differences between three specific megalith types: hunebedden, allée couvertes, and portal tombs. This is investigated through a literature study review, which includes three case studies: D26-Drouwenerveld (Dutch hunebed), Men-ar-Rompet (French allée couvertes), and Killaclohane I and II (Irish portal tombs). All three monument types have many similarities and differences. Primarily, they are all considered Neolithic funerary monuments, following similar basic constructions, albeit with local variations. Stone types used offer information regarding construction and intentionality, depending on where those stones originated. This adds to the symbolic landscape regardless it’s symbolism before construction. The tombs orientation provides information about construction and ritualistic beliefs considered during construction. Additionally, there is a general lack of settlement around areas with many monuments, although that is likely interpreted as a lack of evidence. Artefacts associated with the specific monuments often indicate the cultures associated with them, offering insights into the tombs, their uses, and other factors including economy, and re-uses of the tombs. Developments often differ throughout Atlantic Europe as seen in Ireland’s island context, versus France or the Netherlands continental context. While Ireland continues to see continental influences in passage tombs, there are also newer forms of tombs, for example, portal tombs (also found in Cornwall and Wales), which have few comparable examples on the continent. Whereas France and the Netherlands share similar developmental trajectories (variations of passage tombs). While this thesis offers insights into these developments, more research could offer further understanding of them in a larger scale, including greater periods of reuse and what that may imply.Show less
In the North of England is located Hadrian’s Wall, a large structure built during the Roman period in Britain and was manned by Roman legions. Around 410 AD the Roman period in Britain came to an...Show moreIn the North of England is located Hadrian’s Wall, a large structure built during the Roman period in Britain and was manned by Roman legions. Around 410 AD the Roman period in Britain came to an end. The transition between the Roman period to the Medieval period is a period of uncertainty for researchers. This is largely due to the lack of written sources from this time period. This problem extents to the Northern frontier. In this thesis the main research question is focused on seeing certain spatial and chronological patterns by looking at an artefact database of artefacts found in Northumberland, England that date back to around 43-1066 AD. The research is split up into two methods. The first is a literature research focused on comparing both the Roman and early medieval period on 5 aspects of social culture. The second method focusses on the data provided by the Northumberland Historic Environment Record. The data is transformed into a database in which the type of artefacts are split into 5 categories that are further split up into sub-categories. The spatial distribution of the data is analysed using Qgis. In the results from both research methods the following patterns can be observed. During the early medieval period there is a clear decrease in the amount of artefacts and those artefacts are mostly not present in locations which had large clusters during the Roman period. An exception to this trend is Corbridge which has datapoints belonging to all categories during both time periods. During the early medieval period new data clusters show up in Millfield and Holy island in the north of Northumberland. The decreasing datapoints can potentially imply that the Northern frontier region in Northumberland became a less favourable place to live in the early medieval period compared to the Roman period. The decrease of datapoints along Hadrian’s Wall can potentially imply a lessened importance in areas with a previously heavy Roman presence. The datapoint clusters in the north of Northumberland also indicate that the early medieval period saw new population centres that were not previously Roman.Show less
The presence, availability and popularity of pseudoarchaeological media has erupted in the 21st century. This has affected the public, but has also affected the archaeological field. To better...Show moreThe presence, availability and popularity of pseudoarchaeological media has erupted in the 21st century. This has affected the public, but has also affected the archaeological field. To better understand why this is happening, and if archaeologists should do anything about it, an investigation into how pseudoarchaeological media has changed the professional archaeological field in Europe and North America in the 21st century has been undertaken. Varying types of archaeological and pseudoarchaeological media have been examined to briefly consider the history of pseudoarchaeology in the eye of the public, and how the internet has aided in its rise in popularity. The current state of archaeology in the media is also discussed as it is often presented similarly to that of pseudoarchaeology. The professional archaeological field has been affected by this in different ways; academics have begun to discuss the dangers and power pseudoarchaeology wields, in articles, conferences, and university courses. Archaeological associations and societies also now exclude pseudoarchaeological behaviours and have actively spoken out against pieces of pseudoarchaeological media. Grant awarding and funding bodies have also been affected by pseudoarchaeology and this shift towards better archaeological science communication in general. Archaeologists have also taken it upon themselves to clear the misinformation about archaeology that is rife on the internet, and have done so through varying social media platforms. Pseudoarchaeology is not a neutral force in affecting archaeology; it can have both positive and negative impacts on the field and with the public. While it misinforms the public, spreads dangerous ideas and controls the archaeological narrative in the media, it can also be used as an example of science communication and it inadvertently advances the archaeological field in other manners. Despite how archaeologists debunk pseudoarchaeology time and time again, it is a topic that is likely to stay popular with the public. Archaeologists therefore need to take advantage of new channels of communication and keep opening the field of archaeology to said public. I also suggest that more support for individuals who have taken on the burden of defending our field should be available.Show less
Since the 1980s, archaeological research has unraveled many mysteries about the life in ancient settlements along the Eastern Mediterranean coast, with Atlit-Yam being its prime example. This...Show moreSince the 1980s, archaeological research has unraveled many mysteries about the life in ancient settlements along the Eastern Mediterranean coast, with Atlit-Yam being its prime example. This fishing village was occupied at least nine-and-a-half-thousand years ago and has since then been exposed to a rapidly changing climate and rising sea-levels after the Last Glacial Maximum. Interdisciplinary scientific fields, such as geoarchaeology and paleoclimatology have played an important role in the process of achieving a greater understanding of the relationship between our predecessors and a changing natural environment around them. During the writing process of this essay, it came forward that climate change, and especially a sharp temperature fluctuation during the late ninth-millennium B.P. had notable consequences to the people living at Atlit-Yam, which in turn affected the subsistence economy of the village. The fishing economy that most likely revolved around one specific rare fish; the effort to construct the earliest man-made fresh water wells on the planet and even attempts to brace for the seawater by artificially raising the ground water table and constructing dikes are all examples of responsive behaviour towards climate change during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic C period, when Atlit-Yam enjoyed occupation. All of these, and a comparison between two other Neolithic sites on the Israeli coast have provided an additional perspective on the subsistence economy of Atlit-Yam in contrast to climate change. More attention is shifting towards ancient climate adaptations in coastal areas, and its research potential is underlined by the BEFOREtheFLOOD project funded by the European Research Council. Researchers from the University of Haifa, Israel, are working on the follow-up questions that arose from earlier research regarding this topic.Show less
The aim of this research is to expand the understandings of stamp and cylinder seals as grave gifts in the Late Bronze Age Period of Cyprus. The significance of stamp and cylinder seals in other...Show moreThe aim of this research is to expand the understandings of stamp and cylinder seals as grave gifts in the Late Bronze Age Period of Cyprus. The significance of stamp and cylinder seals in other contexts has been more extensively investigated and interpreted, often understood as mercantile tools, markers of social status, and administrative tools (on both household and institutional levels). However, when it comes to grave contexts, the significance of stamp and cylinder seals is reduced to being decorative or used as an amulet. This research reconsiders that perspective by analyzing the stamp and cylinder seals found in grave contexts at the sites of Episkopi-Bamboula, Maroni, Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios, Hala Sultan Tekke, and Enkomi. The data considered is the material and quality of the stamp and cylinder seals, the associated grave finds encountered in tombs, and the iconography and stylistic influences of the engravings. On the basis of these elements, patterns are identified and comparisons are made to the stamp and cylinder seals which were not located in grave contexts. This gives an insight to what characterizes the stamp and cylinder seals which were used as grave gifts, and whether these characteristics were different from stamp and cylinder seals in other contexts. Also considered is what factor it was which lead to their deposition in graves, as some stamp and cylinder seals were in circulation for multiple generations before being buried. This could be related to the wear of stamp and cylinder seals, and the fact that they reached the end of their use-life. Besides the quantitative analysis, specific contexts and notable finds are considered and discussed. Importantly, this research does not aim to create a singular interpretation of this object type, but rather understand the full range of uses and understandings which surrounded stamp and cylinder seals in the past. The analysis in this research establishes the variety of interpretations which can be applied to stamp and cylinder seals in tomb contexts – they can be indicators of vocation, status, and religion.Show less
This paper examines the meaning of the label ‘Phoenician’ in the context of how it has been used in previous studies. It looks into how the usage has changed and how it is used in current studies...Show moreThis paper examines the meaning of the label ‘Phoenician’ in the context of how it has been used in previous studies. It looks into how the usage has changed and how it is used in current studies as well as how the label is used to describe objects in musea. This is done by taking two case studies. Both the objects of the case studies have been labelled as Phoenician by the musea that write about them. By examining how the label ‘Phoenician’ describes them this paper aims to get a better understanding of how the label is used in the setting of musea as this is often not the same as in academia. After taking these definitions into account this paper aims to establish how the label ‘Phoenician’ helps us understand the Phoenicians. The literary review revealed that the definition of the Phoenicians as a people has been debated for a long time and still has not been fully resolved. The root of the issue lies in the fact that all the cities which are generally considered Phoenician are not culturally or ethnically the same group. The label ‘Phoenician’ was placed upon them by outsiders who did not know the differences between the cities. This caused issues for scholars to define the group. Musea turned out to be rather careful with the label ‘Phoenician’, choosing to label many objects as ‘probable Phoenician’ instead. Though at the same time, their reasoning to call objects Phoenician are rather vague and seems to include all objects that most likely interacted with the Phoenicians at any point in their lifecycle rather than only the objects that were made by them. The results of this study reveal that the label does have its uses when studying the Phoenicians right now, simply because there is no way to avoid the term. However, due to the inaccuracies, it would be best to develop more specific terms and labels for this field. Before establishing these new labels, the current labels should be examined further to re-evaluate them and to avoid making the same mistakes.Show less
