The Philippines is an archipelago with each Island developing slightly different as well as having a long history of foreign cultural influence. From the Chinese to the more religiously- inclined...Show moreThe Philippines is an archipelago with each Island developing slightly different as well as having a long history of foreign cultural influence. From the Chinese to the more religiously- inclined Hinduism and Islamic influence the Philippine culture is a mixture of traditions. The largest influences started from 1565 onward, since its colonisation by the Spanish. After years of conflict, the USA interfered and bought the Philippines in 1898 and slowly granted the Philippines independence. Many of the Indigenous Peoples survived, and much of the natural heritage is protected. Archaeological research is also conducted in the whole archipelago with various states of cooperation between the Peoples. However, the Indigenous way of life is constantly threatened in the Philippines and on the Island of Palawan alone there are many conflicts. The IPRA as well as several international conventions should have ensured that the right of the Indigenous Peoples are protected. There are, however, problems with the laws involved and internal governmental workings. However, there are a lot of organisations that work to correct these injustices locally, nationally and internationally, who want to ensure that the Indigenous Peoples are allowed their rights as well as have a place to continue expressing their culture. Archaeology as a whole is a working as a science to engage more with the communities they reside in and work on decolonising practices.Show less
It is important the connect visitors in the museum to past societies. Also, showing a story of the origin of civilizations in an area is a core piece of knowledge of an area. Thus, during this...Show moreIt is important the connect visitors in the museum to past societies. Also, showing a story of the origin of civilizations in an area is a core piece of knowledge of an area. Thus, during this thesis, the Olmec were found in ten different museums and the way that they were represented was analyzed. The goal was to see if the museum would represent the Olmec as a separate entity or as an integral part of Mesoamerican culture. Three natural history museums, in three parts of the United States of America, and seven exhibits in Europe, were analyzed. These museum exhibits were created between the 1970’s and 2008. They all mention the Olmec in their own way. However, they all fail to fully connect the Olmec to other ancient Mesoamerican cultures and to present indigenous populations. Part of this thesis also shows the accessibility of new resources on the Olmec. Thus, it is easy for curators to construct labels with accurate information for new exhibits once it is viable for museums to design new rooms. Few visitors that were interviewed in during this process knew where the Olmec objects were in the exhibit. What is even more serious is that some of these visitors were confused by the term Olmec. Another aspect of this research is the object that are in these museums. Their databases show that there has been very little done on the Olmec objects in their collections. Very few artifacts have specific provenances attached to them. The provenances that are attached to some of the objects are tenuous because of the age in which they were acquired by the museums. In researching these objects, the museum will be able to give a better overall picture of the true nature of these artifacts and maybe connect them to their true origins. In these museums, there are very few objects that were given to the museum after archaeological research begun on the Olmec. This thesis shows that some museums in the United States and Europe need to give a better overall picture of the Olmec. In doing so, these museums will give a better foundation to their stories on Mesoamerica and be able to tell a more complete story of the region.Show less
In this thesis, the focus lies on the practice of human sacrifice and cannibalism in Aztec culture, and how they are represented in the Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España and the...Show moreIn this thesis, the focus lies on the practice of human sacrifice and cannibalism in Aztec culture, and how they are represented in the Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España and the Primeros Memoriales. Both documents have been written by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, in sixteenth-century New Spain. The Historia General is one of the most cited works in the practice of archaeology and anthropology, regarding human sacrifice and cannibalism in the Aztec world. In general, the Historia General is cited in academic literature without any form of critical comment. By analyzing the first and second book of the Historia General and the Primeros Memoriales, and looking at the motivations behind these two colonial documents, it becomes clear that the Historia General is by no means an objective source of information, and uses human sacrifice and cannibalism as a colonial tool, in order to promote colonialism, the conquest of New Spain, the spread of evangelization and the eradication of the Aztec religion. Therefore, archaeologists and anthropologists should be cautious and critical when using the Historia General in their research on human sacrifice and cannibalism, and base their research on empirical data, for the most part. In doing so, the critical assessment of colonial works such as the Historia General, will lead to a decolonization of the practice of archaeology and anthropology.Show less
This thesis presents the analysis of two major sources on the Spanish conquest of the Aztec realm (1521): the second letter written by Hernán Cortés, directed to the Spanish king Charles V, and the...Show moreThis thesis presents the analysis of two major sources on the Spanish conquest of the Aztec realm (1521): the second letter written by Hernán Cortés, directed to the Spanish king Charles V, and the final book of the work of friar Bernardino de Sahagún (the Florentine Codex). The research aims to find out in what measure these texts may be considered as reliable historical reports. The first part of the thesis contains the analysis of the second letter of Cortés, trying to separate facts from propaganda. The second part analyses the pictures that accompany the text of the Florentine Codex, focusing on the material culture of the time. The main question here is whether the armour and weaponry depicted in these images were in fact used in the time of the conquest, were copied from earlier images or represent weapons observed at the time the book was written. In addition the thesis pays attention to the origin and impact of the ‘Black Legend’, which had a determining influence on the opinions about the Conquest in many Western European countries.Show less
For over 150 years the developments in the Terminal Classic period in the Maya lowlands are studied. There is still no general consensus on the reason of the decline in the southern part and the...Show moreFor over 150 years the developments in the Terminal Classic period in the Maya lowlands are studied. There is still no general consensus on the reason of the decline in the southern part and the transformation in the northern part. The once accepted “collapse” of the Classic Maya civilization is now only argued for by few. The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands is perceived as a period of grave changes, transitions, transformations and continuity. Few settlements did experience abrupt total collapse. There is a large variety of causes that are argued to be of influence to the decline. Assessing the contemporary discussion, several key issues arise. There is no consensus on what terms should be used to describe these events as well as the relativity of labeling short and long scale developments is under discussion. Finally the very essence of what is studied here, is human behaviour. The reaction of the Classic Maya to changing situations or resilience, whether in the socio-political system or to climate changes, is paramount in the study of the Terminal Classic.Show less
When Sahagún came to New Spain he encountered the indigenous population who were in the process of converting to Christianity. He arrived with a group of fellow Franciscan friars with the mission...Show moreWhen Sahagún came to New Spain he encountered the indigenous population who were in the process of converting to Christianity. He arrived with a group of fellow Franciscan friars with the mission to establish a new Christian utopia where a thousand year peace would reign. Sahagún was ordered to write down all that he could find about Nahua culture which resulted in the Historia general. In this manuscript there are various rituals and deities described in full detail and they are said to be idolatrous. Sahagún would take his students from his college in Tlatelolco and gather pictographic information from Tepepulco in order to copy it into the Primeros Memoriales. In this manuscript it is clear that European elements are incorporated in pre-colonial drawings. The Nahua population proved difficult in adopting the Christian faith and kept holding on to traditional beliefs, often mixing old rituals with Christian rituals. This was something Sahagún became upset about, knowing that the traditional rituals were actually in honour of Satan and his demons that needed to be combated. When Sahagún reached old age he was of strong conviction that the mission to establish the utopia had failed and he suggested that Christianity should move on to other parts of the world where conversion would be more successful.Show less
This study is a critical examination of four prominent Teotihuacan figures that are commonly interpreted as deities (Paulinyi 2006). This study evaluates the interpretations and shows that these...Show moreThis study is a critical examination of four prominent Teotihuacan figures that are commonly interpreted as deities (Paulinyi 2006). This study evaluates the interpretations and shows that these interpretations are not well supported. Additionally, possible alternative interpretations are proposed that show these figures might just as well be interpreted differently. It is discussed how the figures may be interpreted as rulers, ancestors or both. This discussion shows these alternative interpretations are for three of the four figures quite plausible. The outcome of this study is relevant in respect to the perception of the nature of Teotihuacan, since Teotihuacan art is generally considered as impersonal, with no depictions of individuals.Show less
Ritual speech is one of the most complex forms of language. It is full of metaphors and complicated phases, in most cases possible to use and understand only by insiders. Moreover, the relevant...Show moreRitual speech is one of the most complex forms of language. It is full of metaphors and complicated phases, in most cases possible to use and understand only by insiders. Moreover, the relevant context, usually of ritual performance has to be provided in order for the incantations to be effective. This paper analysis the context and metaphors in the religious language used by the ritual specialists in 17th century Mesoamerica based on the Treatise by Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón. The complexity of the metaphors used in the spells allows only for one group to be examined. Therefore, the metaphors recognised as calendrical names are examined through systematic analysis. Furthermore, the comparison with the day signs, plates 9-13 of the Borgia Codex, is made in order to investigate the extend of parallel meaning. As a result, the analysis enhances better understanding of the ritual speech-nahuallatolli as well as religious world view of the 17th century Mesoamerican people.Show less
Jaina figurines are ceramic statuettes of approximately 25-30cm high, the majority of which is found on Jaina Island, near the coastline of Campeche, Mexico. They are produced between 500-900AD and...Show moreJaina figurines are ceramic statuettes of approximately 25-30cm high, the majority of which is found on Jaina Island, near the coastline of Campeche, Mexico. They are produced between 500-900AD and belong to the Classic/(Late)-Classic period of Maya civilization. The far majority of the statuettes is found in a burial context. Because of the favourable preservation conditions in the burial, the colours (red, white, Maya blue, and yellow) are still clearly visible. This study focuses on the social identities visible in the Jaina figurines. Which information can be derived from the statuettes concerning the social identities that existed in the (Late)-Classic Maya society? For this study 28 Jaina figurines are examined. They are discussed on several focal points to identify the portrayed social identity: colour, clothing, jewellery, position of the body, headdress, face, gender, and emotion. A model by Houston is used for the latter part, emotion can provide information about the social status of the depicted individual. Jaina figurines of this corpus display social identities that were present in (Late)-Classic Maya court life, including supernaturals. In Maya worldview, gods were like any other social identity part of society. Jaina figurines provide insights in the gender division of labour that existed in Maya society as known from that period from other sources. Because of the natural attitude of the depicted individuals, Jaina figurines form a unique 3D source for a study on (Late)-Classic Maya court life. This study has several limitations, the sample is limited and no research was performed on Jaina Island itself. A wider research containing more access to more statuettes and an investigation of its context could answer many new questions risen in this thesis. This study is a good picture of the social identities that occurred in (Late)-Classic Maya court. It shows the potential of information about Maya court life that can be derived from studying Jaina figurines.Show less
A special kind of paper was used in Mexico since the first century BC. This kind of paper bares the name amate. It has developed, from the Mexica era (14th century) onwards, for many uses of which...Show moreA special kind of paper was used in Mexico since the first century BC. This kind of paper bares the name amate. It has developed, from the Mexica era (14th century) onwards, for many uses of which one relates to the fabrication of objects which play a role in ritual and social context. Until recently amate paper objects were used extensively until the 1960s and ‘70s as material expression in ritual context to address spirits of the cosmic world. After the 1960s it became a material for commercial purposes and is even substituted by industrial paper nowadays. However, the paper objects have adapted their meaning and religious significance to the change of the material. Among the Nahua, the providence of industrial paper to the people made the use of amate disappear. Nonetheless, industrial paper substituted amate paper and the use of paper objects in ritual context continued. The use of these paper objects have been of interest among various scholars through time. Furthermore, analogies between the use of amate paper object in the Nahua and Mexica society are interesting in order to detect similarities or differences in the role amate paper in ritual context of both societies. However, a new perspective can shed a different light on the analysis of the role of these amate paper objects in ritual context and their religious significance. Since ritual theory is used in general to explain rituals in indigenous cultures, a theoretical perspective on ritual in the Mesoamerican erea, where differences of worldview exists, could question the applicability of ritual theory to the rituals of the Nahua and the Mexica in which amate paper objects play a major role.Show less
The Aztecs, people living in the Valley of Mexico at the arrival of the Spaniards, are a well-discussed group which is believed to have had an elaborate ritual way of living in which sacrifices...Show moreThe Aztecs, people living in the Valley of Mexico at the arrival of the Spaniards, are a well-discussed group which is believed to have had an elaborate ritual way of living in which sacrifices took place. The Spanish Conquistadores have documented many rituals in which victims are described to have been decapitated after their still pumping hearts were ripped out of their chests. Being described as cruel acts of the Devil, sacrifice was not tolerated among the Europeans and caused a lot of commotion and highly exaggerated cases on which people tended to rely completely since there are no real Aztec primary sources. While so many things have been written about these ceremonies and the personality of the Aztecs themselves, one starts to wonder what really happened during Aztec reign since these Spanish texts seemed to be highly biased with the influence of Christianity. This was what researchers started to wonder a few decades ago when another perspective on the matter kicked in. Anthropologists started to view things in their own perspective, using the Aztec world view as their guideline. The Aztecs shared this great belief in their pantheon of gods and the fact that their deities had sacrificed themselves in order to create the fifth sun in which the Aztecs lived. In order to pay of their debts to the gods, the Aztecs sacrificed impersonators of their deity to show that they were willing to give up the most precious thing, namely the human body. To be able to state if this is really the best way to analyze human sacrifice and to be able to state that this really happened, archaeological evidence has been searched for and was found in the offering of a child which showed signs of sacrifice by the extraction of the heart. This showed that there is upcoming evidence on the actual happening of human sacrifice but this thesis also shows that nowadays not everyone is relying completely on the sources of the Conquistadores anymore. However some still do and should keep in mind that Spanish sources are not just to be taken for granted but should be read with great care and caution.Show less
