For over 150 years the developments in the Terminal Classic period in the Maya lowlands are studied. There is still no general consensus on the reason of the decline in the southern part and the...Show moreFor over 150 years the developments in the Terminal Classic period in the Maya lowlands are studied. There is still no general consensus on the reason of the decline in the southern part and the transformation in the northern part. The once accepted “collapse” of the Classic Maya civilization is now only argued for by few. The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands is perceived as a period of grave changes, transitions, transformations and continuity. Few settlements did experience abrupt total collapse. There is a large variety of causes that are argued to be of influence to the decline. Assessing the contemporary discussion, several key issues arise. There is no consensus on what terms should be used to describe these events as well as the relativity of labeling short and long scale developments is under discussion. Finally the very essence of what is studied here, is human behaviour. The reaction of the Classic Maya to changing situations or resilience, whether in the socio-political system or to climate changes, is paramount in the study of the Terminal Classic.Show less
The museum over time has undergone many changes. Its meaning and role have altered frequently according to the social and cultural structure of each era. Its activities have enriched sharing...Show moreThe museum over time has undergone many changes. Its meaning and role have altered frequently according to the social and cultural structure of each era. Its activities have enriched sharing knowledge not only within the scientific community but also with all kinds of visitors. The educational programs are one of the newer activities of museums that allow children, the roots of society, to learn about the historical past through external education. The specific research, in what way can an archaeological museum organize the educational programs in order to introduce children to the cultural past, is based on two museums; the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden and the Archaeological Museum of Sparta. For this purpose, archival research and a lot of interviews with the museum professionals and the museum visitors were conducted. Different people from different posts and with different views were asked to talk about and evaluate the educational programs. In the end, a new educational program for the Archaeological Museum of Sparta is proposed. This new three stage program, consisting of visit preparation, the visit itself and activities at school, is influenced by the programs of the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden. It is designed to be easily adapted for local museums yet still provides the same educational benefits for national museums.Show less
Linear enamel hypoplasias are growth disruptions in enamel thickness, formed during childhood and, since enamel does not remodel, stay forever. These defects are seen as stress markers and widely...Show moreLinear enamel hypoplasias are growth disruptions in enamel thickness, formed during childhood and, since enamel does not remodel, stay forever. These defects are seen as stress markers and widely used to interpreted childhood health. This study examined the permanent dentition of a sample of the 19th century rural Beemster population. The teeth are examined macroscopically and systematic disturbances are identified by matching hypoplasias among different teeth. The highest frequency of LEHs are on the central maxillary incisor and mandibular canine. The sample consists of 11 subadults and 39 adults. From all individuals, 64% showed linear enamel hypoplasia. A higher prevalence of LEH was found in the females, although there was no statistically significant difference between the sexes. Adolescents exhibit a significantly higher number of events in comparison to the adults, and have more affected teeth per individual. There is no difference in the mean age-at-death between individuals with and without LEH. Thus, the presence of LEH does not affect mortality in this sample, but the individuals with the highest number of hypoplastic events die at a younger age. The specific age occurrences of LEH fall between 1.5 and 5.3 years of age, with the highest number of LEH between 2.5 and 3.5 years of age. These peaks do no correspond to historically suggested weaning age. The combination of malnutrition and epidemics are suggested to be responsible for the majority of LEH forming events.Show less
Beemster was a rural municipality in the Netherlands which was founded in the 17th century on drained land. The cemetery of Middenbeemster lies in the central village of Beemster and was used from...Show moreBeemster was a rural municipality in the Netherlands which was founded in the 17th century on drained land. The cemetery of Middenbeemster lies in the central village of Beemster and was used from the 17th to 19th century and 450 skeletons were excavated in 2011. Forty nine subadults from the ages of one to fifteen years were examined for rickets. In the 19th century, rickets had become epidemic in most industrialised cities throughout Northern Europe. Crude rickets prevalence in contemporaneous urban populations from the Netherlands varied from 1% to 7%. To identify this disease in the sample of Middenbeemster ten features as described by Ortner and Mays (1998) were scored. Bending deformities of the lower limbs or at least three non-bending features had to be present in order to diagnose rickets. Five individuals displayed evidence of rickets, which is 10.2% of the entire sample. This alone is a high rickets prevalence, but even more for a rural community. In addition, all the affected individuals belonged to the same age category, one to three years (n=25), so the age-specific prevalence becomes much higher at 20.0%. This is an unexpectedly high prevalence of rickets in a community where sunlight was readily available. Specific practices and activities associated with the young age of affected individuals must have diminished sunlight exposure to such a degree that their diet was not sufficient enough to replenish required vitamin D levels to prevent rickets development. Cultural practices including the swaddling of older infants, occlusive clothing for infants and children, keeping the young indoors, and the famine of 1845-1847 likely have contributed to this high rickets prevalence.Show less
This thesis tries to answer questions about aegyptiaca at certain Greek sanctuaries in the Archaic period. We hope to shed light on aspects of Greek-Egyptian contact and exchange, as well as the...Show moreThis thesis tries to answer questions about aegyptiaca at certain Greek sanctuaries in the Archaic period. We hope to shed light on aspects of Greek-Egyptian contact and exchange, as well as the Greek perception of ‘Egyptian’, and Greek religious practice. As background are discussed the theories behind material culture studies, the general history of Greek-Egyptian contact, the Greek view on Egypt as discussed by Herodotus, and the nature of Greek sanctuaries and votive dedications. Then, a closer look is taken at certain sanctuaries: Samos, Ephesus, Perachora, Artemis Orthia, Delphi and Olympia. The aegyptiaca at these sites are discussed. Based on these data alone a conclusive answer to our question cannot be found. However, it becomes clear that these items were part of a complex and wide exchange system, rather than the result of direct contact between Archaic Greece and Egypt.Show less
From the Dutch cemetery of Middenbeemster, individuals from the rural community of the Beemster were excavated, mostly dating to the nineteenth century. The Beemster had an agriculture-based...Show moreFrom the Dutch cemetery of Middenbeemster, individuals from the rural community of the Beemster were excavated, mostly dating to the nineteenth century. The Beemster had an agriculture-based economy, focused on dairy farming. It was a relative latecomer to modernization and farming machinery. This dissertation establishes levels of physical activity and associated social differentiation in the Beemster, based upon skeletal markers of activity in the upper limbs. These are osteoarthritis (OA) and musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM’s). OA is a joint disease, and MSM’s are the sites at which muscles attach to bone, whose morphology may be indicative of muscle use and strain. The high prevalence of OA established that this population engaged in generally strenuous physical labor, more so than contemporaneous Dutch settlements. Although OA severity increased with age, its prevalence did not, indicating that joint-related wear was already occurring in young adults. MSM’s suggested a gendered division of labor. Males had more pronounced MSM’s in all sites but the triceps brachi. Males were especially involved in activities exercising the biceps and brachioradialis, as these showed the highest sexual dimorphism. In general, the pectoralis major muscle was highly pronounced, whereas the multifunctional deltoid muscle was the least developed. There was a clear positive correlation of MSM’s with age. The high symmetry between upper limbs in OA and MSM results also points to strenuous physical activity. Two young adult females had low scores for OA and MSM’s, suggesting they led less strenuous lives and could have belonged to a more elite class. The study also evaluated the usefulness of the methods. Both need further study to become reliable, especially MSM research which is in its infancy. Osteoarthritis was concluded to be most useful on an inter-population level. There was a very low correlation between OA and MSM’s, thus combining them to reconstruct activity in past populations is of limited use. Further standardization of scoring methods is also necessary for both skeletal activity markers. Overall, this research contributed to our understanding of OA and MSM’s as activity markers, both separately and combined, while also providing new data on activity levels in a post-medieval Dutch population.Show less
Decades of research on the role and frequency of fire use in human evolution have only yielded a blurred understanding of the chronology of anthropogenic fire practise. This predicament has by and...Show moreDecades of research on the role and frequency of fire use in human evolution have only yielded a blurred understanding of the chronology of anthropogenic fire practise. This predicament has by and large resulted from an ambiguous archaeological record, issues of preservation of fire residues, as well as undefined frameworks for the scientific study of anthropogenic fire. In fact, besides stirring scholarly debates that in many ways has produced more heat than light, very little actual progress has been made in the last decade with regards to the general understanding of when and where various fire practices (i.e. controlled, opportunistic, and habitual) have emerged. Instead, variable length chronologies have been developed in which various researchers read and interpret the same evidence of fire in a variety of ways. This thesis sets out to add some clarity to the debate by 1) providing a comparative analysis of the various chronologies, with a focus on testing the strengths and weaknesses of the shorter chronologies against the wider background of fire evidence, i.e. the long chronologies; 2) by examining major challenges hindering any considerable progress in establishing a sound and agreed upon chronological framework for fire use and its subsequent production during the Pleistocene Period; and 3) by providing practical solutions and suggestions on directions for future research.Show less
This MA thesis is a study into the assemblage of bone tools from the Late Neolithic period of Tell Sabi Abyad, specifically the tools that come from the Operation III area. Only those objects that...Show moreThis MA thesis is a study into the assemblage of bone tools from the Late Neolithic period of Tell Sabi Abyad, specifically the tools that come from the Operation III area. Only those objects that can be seen as tools or implements have been the subject of the research. In total this amounts to an assemblage of 1081 objects. Of these objects this study investigates which types are present, the numbers in which they occur, and the manner of distribution across the area. The first step is the forming of a typology that is easy to understand for anyone working with the bone tool material from Tell Sabi Abyad yet retains enough detail to make clear distinctions in the distribution of the different objects. The framework of the typology is based on several different ways in which researchers have looked at bone tool assemblages; from the very detailed work of J. Schibler to the more basic idea of expedient versus time-invested tools as first proposed by A.T. Clason. A quantitative analysis is then given, where the different typological classifications and the arguments underlying them are mentioned in detail. Secondly, the implement distribution and contexts per typological entity is investigated. This results in the identification of what can be seen as two main centres within the distribution of the Operation III area. Whether these can be counted as centres of activity is not certain. The available data on the contexts gives an ambiguous view and specific activity localities could not be recognized. From the study it becomes clear that Tell Sabi Abyad shows an assemblage comparable to other Neolithic sites in the Near East and other regions. The typology as it is set up fits well within the limits of the typologies of other sites and, as such, is recognizable for those working on similar studies. This counts both for Tell Sabi Abyad as for other sites. Future work will in all likelihood give rise to reasons for alteration of the current typology but it is believed that the main body will remain upright.Show less
This thesis is on Greece in Late Antiquity. There is much attention for Roman Greece, but mostly, this attention goes to the periods of the Late Republic and the Early Empire. The period of Late...Show moreThis thesis is on Greece in Late Antiquity. There is much attention for Roman Greece, but mostly, this attention goes to the periods of the Late Republic and the Early Empire. The period of Late Roman Greece is less discussed. This thesis gives an overview on the historical background of the Late Roman period, it gives an overview of the archeaological data that have been found for all Roman periods in four major Greek cities Argos, Athens, Thessaloniki and Corinth and an overview of the most well-known surveys in Greece. By combining all these information this thesis decribes the situation of Late Roman Greece. What effects had the events in the Late Roman Empire on the people living in the Greek cities? And what on the people living in the countryside? What effects had the situation in the Greek cities on the countryside, and vice versa?Show less
The subject of this research is a ceiling painting in a corridor of 27 meter long in the Domus Augustana on the Palatine Hill in Rome, Italy. The style of the ceiling painting is linear decoration,...Show moreThe subject of this research is a ceiling painting in a corridor of 27 meter long in the Domus Augustana on the Palatine Hill in Rome, Italy. The style of the ceiling painting is linear decoration, based on its geometrical design, colour scale, while missing the architectural elements visible in other styles. The painting has been dated to the Post Severan period (235-285 AD). This type of style is often found in minor rooms of a building. Unfortunately little research has been done on ceiling painting of the 2nd and 3rd centuries and no similar painting has been found. The walls of the corridor are decorated with marble slabs of type 1 decoration style often found in minor rooms. The date of the marble decoration is the reign of Hadrian. While the walls itself are constructed in different phases, mainly in the reign of Nero and early Flavian period. Out of the space syntax analyses with JASS and Depth Map could also be concluded that the corridor is a minor room in the Domus Augustana. The corridor gave access to a group of rooms which have a secluded character, which were probably used for small banquets and other meetings.Show less
In this thesis the political, social, demographical and geographical relationships between the demes of Attica and the city of Athens are investigated. Because of the size of the polis and the...Show moreIn this thesis the political, social, demographical and geographical relationships between the demes of Attica and the city of Athens are investigated. Because of the size of the polis and the political organization of it Athens was an anomaly in the ancient world. Democracy was first implemented in Attica in 508/7 and therefore Athens played a unique role in history. The large number of settlements, or demes, that together formed the polis of Athens shared political power in the Ecclesia and the Boulé and although this power was never divided among them equally, the system worked for almost two centuries. Many demes housed larger populations than a normal-sized polis outside of Attica did so we must wonder how they were organized and how their size influenced their political power in the polis of Athens. Through archaeological remains and written sources the importance of several unique demes is clarified and the balance of power that existed in democratic Athens is confirmed. Through research we come to find out that very large demes located in the rural or coastal areas could very well have less political power than a much smaller deme within the city-walls of Athens. The reason for this is simple, the Ecclesia, or assembly, was the only legislative power in the polis and the great majority of its members came from the direct vicinity of the city since they were the only ones able to participate in the democratic processes of the polis on a daily basis. The rural and coastal areas of Attica therefore wielded less legislative power despite their superiority in numbers of inhabitants. Through equal representation in the Boulé the demes retained a certain amount of power though so the system, that was implemented by Kleisthenes in 508/7, essentially worked.Show less
This thesis examined the possible function(s) of Harappan fortifications and evaluated the possibility of the fortifications being used as a water barrier against flooding, as military structures...Show moreThis thesis examined the possible function(s) of Harappan fortifications and evaluated the possibility of the fortifications being used as a water barrier against flooding, as military structures or if the fortifications had a more ideological function. The military aspects of the fortifications will be the focus of this thesis and are evaluated according to primary and secondary features. The primary features are 1. The bastion, 2. The defended gate and 3. The V-sectioned moat while the secondary features are the parapet, postern, rampart, salient, tower and the thickness of the walls. Eight sites of the Indus valley have been examined: 1. Banawali, 2. Harappa, 3. Kalibangan, 4. Mohenjo-daro, 5. Dholavira, 6. Kuntasi, 7. Lothal and 8. Surkotada. It has been concluded that flooding did not play an important role in erecting the fortifications. The fortifications all have primary and secondary military features in some degree (except Lothal) which points to a military function of the fortification. Moreover, the turbulent start of the Mature phase is connected with the construction of the fortifications and indicates the need for such structures. However, ideology plays a big part in Harappan society as well and therefore some of the fortifications have a monumental aspect. It is therefore suggested that the fortifications in general performed both a military and a symbolic function.Show less
When Sahagún came to New Spain he encountered the indigenous population who were in the process of converting to Christianity. He arrived with a group of fellow Franciscan friars with the mission...Show moreWhen Sahagún came to New Spain he encountered the indigenous population who were in the process of converting to Christianity. He arrived with a group of fellow Franciscan friars with the mission to establish a new Christian utopia where a thousand year peace would reign. Sahagún was ordered to write down all that he could find about Nahua culture which resulted in the Historia general. In this manuscript there are various rituals and deities described in full detail and they are said to be idolatrous. Sahagún would take his students from his college in Tlatelolco and gather pictographic information from Tepepulco in order to copy it into the Primeros Memoriales. In this manuscript it is clear that European elements are incorporated in pre-colonial drawings. The Nahua population proved difficult in adopting the Christian faith and kept holding on to traditional beliefs, often mixing old rituals with Christian rituals. This was something Sahagún became upset about, knowing that the traditional rituals were actually in honour of Satan and his demons that needed to be combated. When Sahagún reached old age he was of strong conviction that the mission to establish the utopia had failed and he suggested that Christianity should move on to other parts of the world where conversion would be more successful.Show less
The estimated body sizes of hominin individuals and the averages per species are used in palaeoanthropological research to gain more insight in the biology, ecology and life history of Homo erectus...Show moreThe estimated body sizes of hominin individuals and the averages per species are used in palaeoanthropological research to gain more insight in the biology, ecology and life history of Homo erectus (Aiello and Key 2002; Foley 1987; McHenry and Coffing 2000). For such inferences to be made, body size needs to be estimated reliably and accurately. The methods that are used in body stature estimation by the use of femur length are evaluated in this thesis. For this evaluation, 110 stature estimation equations for a range of modern human populations were collected. These equations were used for the calculation of stature estimates for 25 hominin fossils with a range of femur lengths. Such an body stature estimate seems like an exact number, but the real estimate must be a range in order to incorporate the probable error. The error is caused by individual factors such as environmental influences during ontogeny, also at play in modern humans (Hauser et al. 2005), the unknown adaptations of the population (e.g., climatic Ruff (1994), energetic Kurki et al. 2008)) and the unknown amount of error arising from the application of an equation based on one species to another. Due to the error that is unknown, a confidence interval is hard to calculate but must be wide at the same time. This makes it difficult to use such estimates in a biologically relevant manner, for example for further calculations on a species' energetics (Smith 1996). The researchers making such calculations will have to address these issues and the danger of compound error. They will be aided by new finds of Homo erectus postcranial material (e.g. Simpson et al. 2008), which broaden the knowledge on the variation in size and proportions within Homo erectus thus helping to minimize error by scraping of a little of the "unknown" and aiding the choice of a reliable estimation method.Show less
Island archaeological studies are often characterized by island comparisons and the transfer of information between scholars working in many different island environments around the world....Show moreIsland archaeological studies are often characterized by island comparisons and the transfer of information between scholars working in many different island environments around the world. Comparisons between island environments, however, have never been systematically critiqued. This research questions the use of comparisons between island environments. Prehistoric and modern day differences are highlighted and their relevance for archaeologists working in both regions considered. Island comparisons are evaluated by i) examining the justifications with which comparisons can be made, ii) studying the past use and outcomes of comparisons between the Caribbean and the Pacific and iii) the application of a case study focusing on inter-island interaction and exchange at a local scale within both regions. Although archaeological mobility and exchange studies reveal high levels of inter-island interaction, there has been a tendency amongst island archaeologists towards oversimplifying island processes and a stark dichotomy between interacting islands and an archaeology of isolation or ‘essentialising practices’. Moreover it is argued that island archaeologists are methodologically and theoretically unprepared to deal with these issues due to academic legacies such as island biogeography magnified by popular views of isolation and exoticism. This research aims to systematically critique Island Archaeology and to move towards a more comprehensive understanding of the intricacies, possibilities and limitations of island comparisons.Show less
In the museum world, Western perceptions regarding indigenous peoples have often changed in the past and are still changing continually today. This thesis consists of an effort to trace these past...Show moreIn the museum world, Western perceptions regarding indigenous peoples have often changed in the past and are still changing continually today. This thesis consists of an effort to trace these past changes in representations of native peoples from the first museums to modern times, taking the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde in Leiden as a case study. This case study turns out to be an illustrative example of how these changes occurred in ethnographic museums as results of the changes in the political and academic climate at the time, as well as the changing awareness indigenous peoples had of their own culture. By being aware of these past changes, it is better possible to plan ahead for the future.Show less
The aim of the present work is to trace and stress the intercultural relations between the Arab-Islamic power and Christian Byzantium. The struggle for supremacy between these two great powers in...Show moreThe aim of the present work is to trace and stress the intercultural relations between the Arab-Islamic power and Christian Byzantium. The struggle for supremacy between these two great powers in the Mediterranean, which lasted from the middle of the seventh century to the twelfth, vividly appears in the primary sources, Arabic as well as Byzantine, and it can be gleaned with sufficient clarity in spite of numerous lacunae. Nevertheless, information about the cultural relations between these two powers of the time is sparse and incoherent in all sources and the task of modern scholars to trace them is confronted with great difficulties. An attempt has been made in the present work to take a panoramic view of various aspects of the Arab-Byzantine cultural relations in literature, art and naval technology, hoping to demonstrate that in spite of the continuous rivalry between Byzantium and the Arabs, an ongoing; undercurrent cultural communication existed between them.Show less
Abstract Plant macrofossils were investigated from Pleistocene channel infill deposits from Happisburgh Site 1 in Norfolk, England. Happisburgh Site 1 is a Palaeolithic site where flint artefacts...Show moreAbstract Plant macrofossils were investigated from Pleistocene channel infill deposits from Happisburgh Site 1 in Norfolk, England. Happisburgh Site 1 is a Palaeolithic site where flint artefacts made by an unknown species of hominin are present. A general introduction is given to Happisburgh Site 1, with an overview presented on its flora, fauna and archaeology. The aim of the plant macrofossil investigation was to reconstruct the local vegetation at the time of deposition. The taxa found point to deposition during a temperate stage of an interglacial. The palaeoenvironment can be characterised as a freshwater fluvio-lacustrine channel. Beside this channel lay open muddy areas and reed-marshes. Woodland composed of coniferous and deciduous trees was present in the vicinity. The water in the fluvial channel was probably shallow, calcareous, mesotrophic and slow running. The channel possibly became deeper over time, indicated by the higher representation of marsh and waterside plant species in deeper samples, and higher representation of aquatic plant species in shallower samples. The fluvial channel at Happisburgh Site 1 was probably a cut-off channel, only accessed by the main channel during high-energy events. Some reworking of the sediments is indicated by the presence of a pre-Pleistocene megaspore. This study gives evidence about the habitat that hominins occupied at Happisburgh Site 1.Show less
The goal of this bachelor thesis is to answer the research question; What is the discourse on Aztec human sacrifices from the Late Post classic period in the Valley of Mexico and does it coincide...Show moreThe goal of this bachelor thesis is to answer the research question; What is the discourse on Aztec human sacrifices from the Late Post classic period in the Valley of Mexico and does it coincide with the contemporary Aztec museum exhibitions? Sixteenth century chronicles, mainly Sahagun’s, were used and more recent literature. Three museum exhibitions were chosen; two from London and one from New York. The research showed that in time the authors of the literature became more considerate and less prejudiced towards the Aztec culture and placed the human sacrifice in more proper context, even though all sources originated from the sixteenth and seventeenth century chronicles. The three recent museum exhibitions did not display many artefacts that pertain to the sacrificial ritual but reviews concerning the show were nevertheless negative, which is the result of several factors including literature, media, education, and methods of display of the Aztec museum exhibitions. This information led to the conclusion that the discourse on Aztec human sacrifices does not entirely coincide with the chosen recent museum exhibitions.Show less
