Early medieval garnet inlaid objects are subject to a lot of studies, predominantly those of economies and exchange. The topic of social significance, especially in relation to gender, is however...Show moreEarly medieval garnet inlaid objects are subject to a lot of studies, predominantly those of economies and exchange. The topic of social significance, especially in relation to gender, is however barely touched upon. This research studies the gender representation of garnet inlaid objects in Frankish-Merovingian Europe during the fifth and sixth centuries. In total 549 garnet inlaid objects were assembled from over 105 sites within the research area consisting of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the German Provinces Nordrhein-Westfalen and Rhineland-Pfalz. The types of objects found within the research area mainly consist of embellishments, such as brooches, jewellery and belt fittings. This study also comprised of rarer objects such as weapons or saddle mounts. The results of the dataset are critically assessed , looking mostly at the gender theories established during the last 30 years. Also, the dataset is incorporated within a larger research frame by including the examples of Childeric and Sutton Hoo. As a result it could be established that garnet inlaid objects are predominantly found within female graves. The amount of garnet used upon an object and the types of objects found change over time, but they remain present in female contexts throughout the period. The objects adorned with garnets that are incorporated within the male grave are usually only present within sixth century contexts. However at the end of the fifth century they are first found related to a very rich male context (e.g. Childeric). An area where garnets are predominantly present in the research area could not be discovered but some regional differences were observed. The rapid decline within garnet adorned objects found within the research area, combined with the Anglo Saxon Sotton Hoo burial is suggesting a geographical shift in the use of garnet inlaid objects. A lot remains to be researched in new studies. The sexing of graves where the objects are found is, for instance, a worthwhile research focus. Also a thorough examination of the total grave assemblages could reveal new and exciting data.Show less
This thesis focuses on a large warrior grave (nr 6) found in a Merovingian cemetery in Uden, North-Brabant. In 2014 this cemetery was discovered when a road was constructed. An archaeological...Show moreThis thesis focuses on a large warrior grave (nr 6) found in a Merovingian cemetery in Uden, North-Brabant. In 2014 this cemetery was discovered when a road was constructed. An archaeological excavation was carried out by Archol bv in cooperation with Leiden University. Besides 26 inhumation graves, the excavation also uncovered a settlement dating from the Merovingian period to the central Middle Ages. This makes the site of Uden-Schepersweg special as it is one of the few Merovingian cemeteries studied in relation to a settlement. Several graves were lifted en bloc and brought to the Restaura restauration laboratory in Haelen (NL). The X-ray photographs made there revealed the true nature of the finds. Grave 6 stood out as it contained a sword, a seax , a lance, two glass vessels, pottery, silver inlaid mounts of a belt but above all a large set of elaborately silver inlaid iron mounts of horse gear. The thesis is based on the research question what the meaning is of grave 6 in the context of the cemetery and in a supra-regional context. After discussing the development of Uden and the surrounding area, the Schepersweg site and previous research there, the thesis continues to discuss the Merovingian period (450-750 AD) and its burial rituals. Next, the thesis describes the contents of grave 6 in detail and compares them with other graves selected on the presence of similar horse gear mounts from Oexle’s Studien zu merowingerzeitlichem Pferdegeschirr am Beispiel der Trensen and Van Es’ and Hulst’s publication on the cemetery of Lent (Netherlands). The following chapters present the date and interpretation for grave 6. They also discuss whether the grave can be seen as a founders’ grave and what the meaning of the grave is both in the context of the cemetery and in a supra-regional context. Grave 6 is one out of a small number of graves spread over Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands that contain horse gear with silver inlay decorations in the geometric style. The horse gear causes grave 6 to be dated to the (early) seventh century, although it includes a few objects that are much older. The grave is part of the second phase of the cemetery, making it different from a traditional founders’ grave. Because it meets all other requirements it is still regarded a founders’ grave. One reason is that there may not be a continuity of burial on the site after the first phase of (two) burials in the middle or third quarter of the sixth century. The presence of a second round of founders’ graves in a cemetery could have different meanings. For example, maybe a new community settled here and reused an older cemetery.Show less
The aim of this thesis is to suggest the reasons for the collapse of the Romano British polity in the fifth to sixth centuries CE in south-western England via complexity theory. This thesis focused...Show moreThe aim of this thesis is to suggest the reasons for the collapse of the Romano British polity in the fifth to sixth centuries CE in south-western England via complexity theory. This thesis focused on hillforts as a complex network in order to interpret archaeological aspects and material evidence. In Iron Age pre-Roman Britain, a variety of small civitates of Celtic tribes were located in Britain. Julius Caesar witnessed that the Britons were competing to conquer each other when he landed on Kent in 55 BCE. There was not a unified or integrated authority until the Roman troops invaded Britain in the first century CE. In Iron Age Roman Britain, the Roman army started military campaigns to conquer the territory of Britons. The Romans occupied the lowland zone in Britain and built fortresses in Chester, Caerleon, and legion headquarters in York. Even though there were several revolts against the Roman authorities such as that led by Queen Boudicca, the Roman army successfully suppressed them. However, Celtic guerrillas continuously attacked the Roman legions. The Roman authorities ordered to construct defence walls such as Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall so as to defend their military bases and occupying territory. Unceasing guerrilla attacks caused to increase social entropy. The occupation of Roman troops influenced the culture and customs to Celtic tribes in Britain. It might be a small phenomenon to Roman authorities, but its impact was so huge that changed lowland Roman Britain culturally. It can be defined as the first butterfly effect on culture. As the Western Roman Empire began to decline constantly from the fourth century CE, the migration of the Saxons started. The Roman authorities ordered to withdraw troops from Britain to Gaul in the first half of the fifth century CE. It led whole Britain to small independent communities. When the Roman army withdrew to Gaul, the power balance has been altered. It is identified as the second butterfly effect on culture. In post-Roman Britain after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, there was civil war between warlords such as Votigern and Ambrosius Aurelianus. Votigern brought the Saxon mercenaries to Britain. The Saxons conquered the realm of Romano-British swiftly. The Saxons started attacking Romano-British hillforts. I presented the distribution of hillforts as a scale-free network in complex networks. There are three components in a scale-free network: hubs, linkers, and edges. The collapse of complex network relies on the number of hubs. Besides, the restoration of a complex network depends on the number of subsisting hubs. The huge hillforts such as Maiden Castle in Dorset, South Cadbury Castle in Somerset, and Tintagel Castle in Cornwall show that they were abandoned between the sixth and seventh centuries CE. As the Saxons expanded their realms westwards, the Romano-British polity collapsed first. They seemed to keep their territory partially. However, they did not succeed to restore their whole areas. Its collapse pattern is semi-nomadic which is classified between that of the nomadic and the sedentary. The reasons for the collapse of Romano-British polity in south-western England in the fifth to sixth centuries CE can be divided into internal and external factors. The former would have been the loss of charismatic military leader, social instability of polity and division of network systems. The latter would have been stated scatterings of continental military league groups in Armorica (Brittany), disconnecting with continental network systems and shift of religious paradigm.Show less
This thesis explores the deposition of swords in European rivers and wetlands during the Carolingian period. Finds of a similar nature have been thoroughly studied in Scandinavia and a scholarly...Show moreThis thesis explores the deposition of swords in European rivers and wetlands during the Carolingian period. Finds of a similar nature have been thoroughly studied in Scandinavia and a scholarly discussion has been underway in Britain. Continental water-finds have been traditionally interpreted as casual losses and intentional deposition has been regarded as unlikely, given the Christian nature of the Frankish Empire. This thesis questions the traditional interpretation of continental water-finds and suggests an alternative explanation. Hundred twenty-nine swords are mapped geographically, spanning from the river Loire to the river Oder, to identify distribution patters that support the hypothesis of ritual deposition. The fact that the Carolingian swords accumulate in specific locations in the natural landscape, such as the confluences of major rivers or river mouths, seem to indicate a liminal character of these deposits. Rivers and wetlands formed borders and boundaries in a physical, as well as in a mental world of medieval people, and as such they were imbued with special meaning. It is suggested here that the swords deposited at these liminal locations might have been connected to journeys, or to actions related to traversing or engaging with the river. Furthermore, this thesis seeks to bridge a gap between the dichotomy of ‘pagan’ ritual practice and Christian ideology and suggests that these depositions were not performed in defiance of the Church, but were incorporated into the new belief system and appropriated to suite contemporaneous ideas.Show less
During the Carolingian and Ottonian period, ceramics from the German Rhineland were transported throughout north-western Europe. One specific type of vessel that was produced in the Rhineland was...Show moreDuring the Carolingian and Ottonian period, ceramics from the German Rhineland were transported throughout north-western Europe. One specific type of vessel that was produced in the Rhineland was the relief-band amphora (RBA), which has traditionally been interpreted as a luxury item and associated with transport and trade. By analysing the distribution of RBA throughout The Netherlands and across settlements of different social standing this study aims to extract information about the mechanics of the Carolingian and Ottonian trade network. To build up a database for this study, data from the Dutch national archaeological database (ARCHIS2) was used. For each observation with RBA registered to it in ARCHIS2, an attempt was made to determine the character of the site (rural settlement, trade settlement, etc.) and to establish what percentage of the ceramic complex of each site consisted of RBA. During this process it became clear that establishing the site character and the ratio of RBA was not possible for a most of the observations listed in ARCHIS2, either because the data in ARCHIS2 was incomplete or incorrect, or because the publication did not provide the required data. The few sites for which both the context and the percentage of RBA could be established were subsequently discussed and compared. For the Carolingian period, the highest percentage of RBA was found in Dorestad. Two smaller rural settlement, one of which was possibly located on an allodium, showed a lower percentage of RBA when compared to Dorestad, but showed a similar percentage of RBA when compared with the portus of Deventer. It thus seems that access to the luxurious RBA and the long-distance trade network was not exclusive to the larger trading centres. The similar ratio of RBA between Deventer and the rural settlements continues in the Ottonian period. This is especially interesting because it is precisely in this period that Deventer had its economic florescence. The Ottonian portus of Tiel stands out for its very high percentages of RBA being more than five times higher than in Deventer. The village of Zandwijk, located just across the river from Tiel, also shows a very high percentage of RBA, but it is not clear whether this settlement should be interpreted as a separate entity or as a part of the portus. Several possible explanations are provided for the high percentage of RBA in Tiel, but due to data limitations, no hard conclusions can be drawn.Show less
This study concerns the Christian cemetery surrounding the Romanesque and earliest Gothic churches in the village of Reusel. This cemetery dating to the 10th to 14th centuries was almost completely...Show moreThis study concerns the Christian cemetery surrounding the Romanesque and earliest Gothic churches in the village of Reusel. This cemetery dating to the 10th to 14th centuries was almost completely excavated. The aim of this study is twofold: to determine the composition of the sample of excavated graves, and to assess patterns in the ways the individuals were buried. In particular, it was examined if differentiation in grave morphologies and distribution could be related to social differences. In order to do this, different grave morphologies, the orientation of the graves and their location, and the skeletons from the graves were examined. Furthermore, characteristics were compared to each other to see if patterns emerged. The composition of the sample suggests that most adult community members were buried at the Reusel cemetery. Most children however, and especially the infants, may not have been buried within the cemetery grounds. The ones that were, were all buried in the eastern part of the cemetery, except for one infant that was buried together with an adult. Males were slightly overrepresented in the sample, but this is likely to be due to sample size. Remarkably, intramural burial was rare. Burial took place on all sides of the successive churches, but particularly directly to the east of it. Different grave morphologies appeared all over the cemetery, apart from the ladder coffin, which was restricted to the eastern part of the churchyard. This type of coffin may be related to a specific status of the deceased be it in terms of wealth or piety. Furthermore, as far as could be determined, only males were buried in such coffins. Other observed grave morphologies include anthropomorphic graves, log coffins, coffins with and without protrusions and containers of unknown type. Coffins with and without nails were encountered, a difference that could be attributed to different periods. Most graves were oriented roughly from east to west, except three graves that were oriented west to east. Within the Christian tradition, such burials are often interpreted as priests, but the fact that at least one of these individuals was a woman, suggests traditions in Reusel may have been deviant. This study sheds more light on burial practices during the Central and Late Middle Ages. It shows that in the Reusel community, some practices were in accordance with those in other medieval communities, although others were clearly different. It confirms the existence of local variation in burial practices in this period. Apparently, people from local communities could, to a certain extent, give their own interpretation to Christian rituals. In future cemetery studies, such local variations have to be taken into account. Future research in these areas will help to acquire a better picture of medieval burial ritual and its social meaning in the southern Netherlands. This study is under embargo because the author prepares a more comprehensive report on this exceptional site.Show less
The aim of the study was to understand what distribution patterns tell us about Carolingian historical and economic processes in the Netherlands, and how this pattern was affected by post...Show moreThe aim of the study was to understand what distribution patterns tell us about Carolingian historical and economic processes in the Netherlands, and how this pattern was affected by post-depositional processes. This was done by investigating coins in relation to geographic layers and changes of distribution patterns through time were studied using 50-year time slices from 750 AD to 950 AD. Coins are mostly found along the coast and near major rivers in the centre of the Netherlands, with hot spots at known Carolingian trade settlements such as Dorestad, Domburg and settlements at the mouths of the Rhine and Meuse rivers. Other hotspots are found at Nijmegen, which was the site of a Carolingian palatium, and the northwest coast of the province of Friesland. While clay rich features of marine and fluviatile deposits favour the preservation of coins, it is likely that coins were mainly circulating in the vicinity of navigable waters. Frisian merchants were renowned in the Carolingian empire and beyond for their prominence in international trade and their core area coincides seamlessly with the coin distribution pattern. Coin circulation appeared to be at its peak during the reign of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. Circulation then again diminished following political instabilities, Viking invasions and the gradual silting of the river Rhine after the death that were later to become trade centres of importance in the later Middle Ages after Dorestad went defunct in the 850s AD. Coins are infrequently found in many parts of the Netherlands. Large parts of the Netherlands were deemed inhospitable during the Carolingian era due to vast areas of peat bogs that were drained in the late Middle Ages and the modern era. The south and east of the country is characterized by deposits of cover sands was also found to be sparse in Carolingian coins. That the southern provinces of Noord-Brabant and Limburg were so thinly endowed with coins was a surprise, as these areas are known to have been close to the Carolingian heartland. The poor preservation qualities of metal objects in sand is only part of the answer why this is the case. The river Meuse and the southern provinces were found to have been of little interest to Frisian traders, who conceivably preferred the relatively neutral extremities of the Empire that were conductive to international trade. Perhaps coins in the Netherlands were principally a medium used by merchants in long distance trade, and not as readily used in local and regional trade along rural settlements.Show less
The cemetery of Putten had a close relation between structure and chronology. Even though the cemetery has not been completely excavated in the twenties of the 20th century, it is possible to make...Show moreThe cemetery of Putten had a close relation between structure and chronology. Even though the cemetery has not been completely excavated in the twenties of the 20th century, it is possible to make several assumptions based on the available data. A newer plan has been included in the attachment, showing not earlier published structures of the cemetery. These newly added parts offer a great help with the analysis of structure and chronology. The eldest part of the excavated cemetery can be connected to small circular structures consisting of postholes or ditches, which encircled a cremation. A possible new start of a cemetery seemed to have been made after the cremation burials were no longer in use and a transition was made to inhumation graves. This new start was located more to the east of the cemetery and consisted of rich graves. Here a distinction could be made between graves that belonged to females and males. These graves could have been encircled by either a single or double circular ditch. Finds included weaponry, pottery, brooches, etc. Around this core a younger zone was situated. These graves contained burials joined only by the combination of knives with buckles or necklaces. The amount of finds that was in the older zone has been reduced to the above combination only. A distinction between genders is no longer possible to make. No skeletal material was collected from any inhumation graves, mostly due to the poor condition they were in when they were excavated and an assumption cannot be made on finds alone. This zone and the older zone with the ‘rich’ graves also had postholes around the graves. Other elements were also situated in these two zones, such as: double graves and differently orientated graves. This disappeared over time with the circular ditches and the burial gifts. The outer zone of the excavated cemetery is a zone without any finds.Show less
Contemporary archaeological research often works under the assumption that towns in the Early Middle Ages were static features in the landscape. However, recent studies show that early medieval...Show moreContemporary archaeological research often works under the assumption that towns in the Early Middle Ages were static features in the landscape. However, recent studies show that early medieval town development was much more diverse and spatially mobile than previously thought. In this thesis, I aimed to distinguish different types of town development, and endeavoured to find out what events and characteristics may contribute to a town’s spatial development. I did this by researching eight towns and looking at characteristics which I believed would shed light on the question why some towns appear to display more mobility than others during their development in the Early Middle Ages. This included looking at the presence of ecclesiastical structures, trade, and profane power, as well as natural features in the landscape. I found that out of the eight towns that I researched, five displayed signs of spatial mobility, two seemed to remain static in the landscape, and one displayed a third, previously unconsidered option; the presence of multiple, independently functioning settlement cores that were present within a Roman fortification structure in the same time period. This motivated me to name these three development types mobile towns, static towns and polyfocal towns respectively. Furthermore, I concluded that while it is possible to distinguish different types of town development in the Early Middle Ages when looking at it in a broad sense, it is not possible to distinguish between the different types when looking at one specific characteristic. All towns were alike in the sense that they were all located along major waterways and had a Roman predecessor. I also found that ecclesiastical presence does not always necessarily coincide with civil habitation. This counters the commonly accepted assumption that churches and other religious structures functioned as ‘anchors’ in the landscape, around which habitation was always present. For further research I suggest that the control group be expanded to include more early medieval towns. Furthermore, I believe it would be beneficial to include a larger variety of towns, for example, towns that are not located along major waterways and towns that did not have a Roman predecessor. I am confident that if the scale of the research is widened, it is possible to come to a clearer conclusion concerning the spatial movement of early medieval towns.Show less
The earliest Middle Ages are known as the Merovingian period and start around 450 AD and last until 720 AD. This period is often described as “Dark Ages” because of the contrast with the Roman...Show moreThe earliest Middle Ages are known as the Merovingian period and start around 450 AD and last until 720 AD. This period is often described as “Dark Ages” because of the contrast with the Roman period. This distinction is colored but nevertheless is it true that the Netherlands were more scarcely habited in this period. The Dutch landscape and its influence on the quality of habitation are important factors. Merovingian people were aware of the landscape and tried to adjust their habitation to the landscape. This resulted in a distribution of settlements in areas were habitation was most favorable and easy. Another important factor in this period for them was trade, this is something they had in common with their predecessors. They maintained large networks of trade and exchange and were able to explore the world. This is important for the origin, production, distribution and traditions within luxury goods such as metal and glass objects. The Early Middle Ages are an underexplored period. This goes especially for the many find categories found in Merovingian cemeteries such as the glass vessels. Glass vessels are magnificent products of early medieval crafts. It needs a lot of skill to make them and raw materials came from afar. It is strange that they have not been the subject of intensive research yet, although new research is started in the countries surrounding the Netherlands. Research in the Netherlands lags behind. There are no typologies or studies for the complete glass vessel dataset for the Merovingian period. For this thesis it was chosen to limit the study to the finds known from cemeteries. Two topics are addressed: the role of glass vessels in the Merovingian burial ritual and what the distribution of glass vessels in Merovingian graves do tell us about exchange mechanisms in the Merovingian period. This second topic is a pilot to see if any interesting information and new research topic were to be found. This topic was limited due to the amount of time available for this master thesis. Many new insights were found in this thesis regarding the typological distribution of glass vessels; type, color and decorations. One of the most important results is the distinction between glasses from the Rhine and Maas valley. They seem to represent a difference in production for the Rhineland and eastern Belgium/northern France. This is important because this shows us the origin of glasses and is a start for the research on trade and exchange for the whole Merovingian period. This thesis shows that further research is important, interesting and will probably provide new insights for the whole Merovingian period. Therefore a list of suggestions for further research is added to provide some ideas.Show less
