In this Master Thesis a novel approach is presented to study the extinction of the giant hominid Gigantopithecus blacki from Palaeolithic Southeast Asia, around 300 ka in the Middle Pleistocene,...Show moreIn this Master Thesis a novel approach is presented to study the extinction of the giant hominid Gigantopithecus blacki from Palaeolithic Southeast Asia, around 300 ka in the Middle Pleistocene, while early Homo survived. This novel approach consists of alternative solutions to established methods, based on a multidisciplinary background. It concerns palaeozoloogical questions from an archaeological interest that require to be solved with 3D virtual reality methods, including 3D Photogrammetry and Occlusal Fingerprint Analysis (OFA). After Comparative Morphometric Analyses (CMA’s) on the dentition and mandibles of 4 analogue hominid species (G. gorilla, P. pygmaeus, P. boisei and H. sapiens), 3D Photogrammetry and Occlusal Fingerprint Analysis (OFA) were performed on isolated G. blacki teeth. The mastication of G. blacki, based on dental macrowear and mandibular morphology as proxies, could reveal many inferences on the relationship between mastication and extinction. These inferences included: (1) dental occlusal surface area which facilitated dental wear; (2) the distribution of dental wear facets per wear types; (3) the orientation of wear facets; (4) dental arcade shape; (5) specific morphometric regions used during mastication; (6) specific adaptation to a restricted palaeoenvironment (habitat and niche); and (7) palaeodiet. Surprisingly, in contrast to the hypothesis that mastication in G. blacki would be most similar to P. pygmaeus, it tends to be more similar to a G. gorilla, with a comparable ‘specialization-factor’ to P. boisei. However, the relationship found between mastication and extinction is more complex than it initially seemed. Although there exists a causal relationship, in which mastication determined palaeodiet, which eventually caused extinction of G. blacki, the reality might be more complex than this rather simplified relationship. Therefore, the relationship between mastication and extinction is not one-to-one, but should always be considered in association with other factors. Comparative interpretations between G. blacki and H. erectus (sensu lato) on ‘failure versus success’ from an ‘inferior versus superior’ approach, are false and not justified. However, such a hierarchical comparison does seems justified with H. floresiensis. As it was vulnerable to similar palaeoenvironmental fluctuations as G. blacki. Overall, dental macrowear and mandibular morphology as reliable proxies for mastication and extinction have great potential, but should be interpreted cautiously to avoid over-interpretations. Therefore, this Master Thesis is a pilot-study for future research.Show less
During the last ice age, the North Sea was a dry land. Following the deglaciation, it became inundated because of the rising sea levels roughly 8 millennia ago. The North Sea region was inhabited...Show moreDuring the last ice age, the North Sea was a dry land. Following the deglaciation, it became inundated because of the rising sea levels roughly 8 millennia ago. The North Sea region was inhabited by humans and animals and provides major archaeological insights. In this thesis, an analysis of the carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotopes of 14C dated skeletal remains from the North Sea is performed. The research question is to evaluate the potential outcome for paleo-ecological reconstructions during the Late Pleistocene and the Early Holocene, and contributions regarding human societies - in particular subsistence. The material consists for the most part of mammal skeletal remains, dating from the maximum of the 14C range (ca. 45,000 BP) to the Early Holocene. An overview of the data generated on the basis of all available measurements is given, focusing on stable isotopes. The data are discussed from various perspectives, such as the composition and biases of the database that is used in this thesis. An interesting observation is the difference in diet between Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene terrestrial mammals. This is caused by differences in the consumption of vegetation and suggests a change of landscape during this timerange. The isotope analysis of the North Sea material does confirm pre-existing hypotheses regarding dietary differences between animals. It also confirms the picture of how the North Sea area looked like many years ago: terrestrial and marine ecosystems dominated the Late Pleistocene landscape, after which it became more wet during the Early Holocene with the emergence of freshwater environments, the expansion of the marine environment and subsequent gradual disappearance of the terrestrial ecosystem. The potential of applying stable isotope research for paleo-ecological reconstructions is therefore clearly shown, even when it is based on a relatively limited sample of animal bones available.Show less
The entry of a high number of large animals from Africa, North America and Asia into Europe during the Plio‐Pleistocene provided a rich diversity of both herbivore and carnivore populations. These...Show moreThe entry of a high number of large animals from Africa, North America and Asia into Europe during the Plio‐Pleistocene provided a rich diversity of both herbivore and carnivore populations. These high numbers of animal dispersals into Europe indicate that the continent was a sink habitat during the Plio‐Pleistocene and probably open to way of hominid entry into the continent. Studying of these dispersals is important for understanding the late Neogene and the Quaternary environment of Europe, particularly the timing of the establishment and collapsing of the land bridges as well as developments in climate and vegetation. Moreover, a high number of long distance animal dispersals also give to opportunity of a studying the animal dispersals’ behaviors and modes which represent the occurrence of a dispersal in ‘space’, ‘time’ and ‘form’. The Plio‐Pleistocene long distance dispersals of animals into Europe reveal four distinct movement patterns as ‘geodispersal,’ ‘secular migration’, ‘diffusion’ and ‘jump dispersal’. At the same time, variation in the dispersal behaviors of animals as ‘migration’ and ‘immigration’ were observed in which, the duration of species were much longer by ‘immigration’ between the Late Pliocene and Cromerian, however, after the establishment of the 100 kyr climate cyclicity, the ‘migration’ behavior of herbivores were the dominant pattern which reveal short term duration and repeated back and forward movements of the species into the continent.Show less
This research discusses the analysis of the stable isotopes 13C and 15N which were extracted from faunal bone material, dating from the seventh and early sixth millennium BC (the Late Neolithic)...Show moreThis research discusses the analysis of the stable isotopes 13C and 15N which were extracted from faunal bone material, dating from the seventh and early sixth millennium BC (the Late Neolithic) from Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria. The aim of this stable isotope analysis was to learn more about domestication of the animals and their diet, but also to see if there is a connection between the observed cultural change which is supposed to be related to a climate signal (the 8.2 ka event) and the zoological record. To perform this analysis, a broad sample of faunal bone material was collected and processed at Rijksuniversiteit Groningen (RUG) in the Centre for Isotope Research (CIO). The material appeared to be very fragile and not all samples contained enough collagen to provide reliable data. After a quality control, 35 samples remained as the final selection. Due to the reduction of the sample, it appeared to be impossible to draw any conclusions on the domestication of cattle. The 13C values of the successful samples suggest that there was a difference between the diet of wild herbivores (Gazelle), which seem to have been feeding almost exclusively on C3 plants and domesticated herbivores (caprines: Ovis and Capra) which show signals of a diet based on both C3 and C4 plants. The flocks were most likely herded over and extensive territory. The 15N values seem do indicate arid conditions in the area of Tell Sabi Abyad and possibly the practice of manuring. A significant change within the diet of the caprine group seem to have occurred exactly around the shift of the two Sequences of the settlement, which coincide with the assumed climate change of the 8.2 ka event. While the carbon and nitrogen values of early caprines indicate a broad diet and wide-ranged herding practices, the late caprines seem to point towards a diet consisting of mainly C3 plants and there is reason to believe that the flocks were kept closer to the settlement.Show less
Though research on small mammals may seem of no relevance to archaeology, it has already proven itself useful with the Mimomys/Arvicola boundary. This marker in time is important when dating sites...Show moreThough research on small mammals may seem of no relevance to archaeology, it has already proven itself useful with the Mimomys/Arvicola boundary. This marker in time is important when dating sites where humans were once present. The aim of this research was to investigate whether the genera Apodemus and Micromys could be a similar marker in time during the Pleistocene in Northwestern Europe and could contribute to a reconstruction of the climate and environment. Furthermore, this thesis sheds a light on the debate on the age of Neumark- Nord I. To do this, the Apodemus and Micromys molars from four different episodes (Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene) were studied; Tegelen-Maalbeek, Miesenheim I, Sesselfelsgrotte and Miesenheim II. Tegelen-Maalbeek dates to the Early Pleistocene (Tiglian), Miesenheim I to the Middle Pleistocene (the end of the Cromerian), Sesselfelsgrotte to the Late Pleistocene Oerel-Glinde interstadial and Miesenheim II to the Allerød interstadial. The molars from the sites were separated per species so the evolution of every species could be studied. The species that is special interest is Apodemus maastrichtiensis, which does not occur after the Eemian. The species was not yet present in Tegelen-Maalbeek, though present during the Cromerian. All other species did not show convincing differences over time or a limited occurrence, making them useless as a time marker. Nevertheless they can contribute to the reconstruction of the landscape and climate. Apodemus needs high vegetation, whereas Micromys needs a close vicinity to water. Both occur in temperate climates. The species Apodemus maastrichtiensis was used as a time marker to attribute the Palaeolithic site Neumark-Nord I to the Saalian by Heinrich (2010). It is clearly distinguishable from larger Apodemus species at the site. However Neumark-Nord I probably was an Eemian site, because of its stratigraphical position. This implies that Apodemus maastrichtiensis was present during the Eemian and no longer can be used as a stratigraphical marker for the Saalian. Altogether, Apodemus maastrichtiensis can be considered a marker in time, since it has not yet been discovered after the Eemian. The genus Micromys and the other species from the genus Apodemus are not suitable as time markers; however they can contribute to climate and landscape reconstruction. This means that they can tell archaeologists a lot about the environment humans lived in, making small mammals of great relevance.Show less
Dating archaeological sites in the Quaternary period remains difficult despite the relatively recent developed physical dating methods such as 14C, palaeomagnetism, geochronometric dating such as...Show moreDating archaeological sites in the Quaternary period remains difficult despite the relatively recent developed physical dating methods such as 14C, palaeomagnetism, geochronometric dating such as thermoluminescence (TL), optical stimulated luminescence (OSL) Uranium (U)-series methods, Potassium/Argon (K/Ar) and Argon/Argon (Ar/Ar). Biostratigraphy is also an often used and established method to relatively date archaeological sites in the Quarternary period. Voles in particular can contribute valuable information. In order to develop a higher resolution in the use of voles as biostratigraphical markers, it is important to be able to use as much lineages as possible. This is also important because some vole lineages cover short periods of time or are not abundant enough in sites. The genus Clethrionomys, which is mostly well represented in the fossil record, is investigated for this purpose. In this thesis the first lower and upper molars are investigated using multiple techniques or methods such as height measurements of the enamel free zone, morphotype analysis and SDQ measurements. The results of this investigation show that Clethrionomys can be used as a biostratigraphical marker, a rough chronological indication can be made.The Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene periods can be distinguished based upon the first lower molar. The earliest appearance of C. rufocanus in Europe as a biostratigraphical marker can be further investigated. This species only appears in the Middle Pleistocene in this investigation, and is also observed for the first time in Boxgrove, England in this period.Show less
In 2004 the remains of at least twenty individuals have been found in a medieval family grave in the St. Willibrordus church in Deurne. The grave was thought to belong to members of the van Doerne...Show moreIn 2004 the remains of at least twenty individuals have been found in a medieval family grave in the St. Willibrordus church in Deurne. The grave was thought to belong to members of the van Doerne family (15th and 16th century AD). Physical anthropological, genealogical, and DNA analysis was performed in order to obtain information that would allow us to identify these individuals. For this thesis additional DNA analysis was performed on seven individuals. By means of autosomal and Y-chromosomal Short Tandem Repeat (STR) analysis and Hyper Variable Region 1 (HVR1) mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequencing, we attempted to reconstruct possible family relationships among these seven individuals. The probabilities of the reconstructed family relationships were estimated using specific statistical analysis. This allowed us to reconstruct a possible family tree. We also explored the possibilities of linking the reconstructed family tree to the existing genealogy.Show less
Biostratigraphy is the most applied dating device for Quaternary (archaeological) sites, based on presumed predictable evolutionary changes in species morphology. The velocity of evolution may...Show moreBiostratigraphy is the most applied dating device for Quaternary (archaeological) sites, based on presumed predictable evolutionary changes in species morphology. The velocity of evolution may however deviate from directional trends due to a large amount of influencing factors, that are moreover not all identifiable fossil record. It is tried to relate patterns of morphological change to possible causal factors throughout this thesis, but due to unknown (relative) importance of these parameters use of biostratigraphy is hardly justifiable. On a higher level, the rates of speciation and evolutionary modes level also give very little chronological support, as the mechanisms behind these patterns are likewise largely unknown. Because the blanks in a dated evolutionary scheme cannot be filled in with certainty, the use of biostratigraphy is hardly tolerable. Unfortunately, due to a lack of other dating methods it currently remains in use, but should be seriously questioned for the future if not more information is gained from modern studies on recognizing (proportional) influences involved in the velocity of evolution.Show less
Sanger based sequencing of mammoth and mastodon dung samples were performed. The mammoth samples, from permafrost regions in Alaska and Siberia, were successfully amplified and sequenced. The...Show moreSanger based sequencing of mammoth and mastodon dung samples were performed. The mammoth samples, from permafrost regions in Alaska and Siberia, were successfully amplified and sequenced. The mastodon samples, preserved in a continuously wet, cool, low-pH, anoxic environment, on the other hand, could not be amplified; possibly because they still contained living bacteria. Innovative procedures were used to establish an optimal functioning protocol and process the sequences. The obtained results are compared with each other, based on the target gene region, as well as with conventional morphological paleoecological methods of diet reconstruction. It is concluded that it is advantageous to use Sanger based sequencing with multiple target regions for diet analysis with ancient DNA. The additional value of ancient DNA analysis is relatively large for diet analysis, as 30-50% of the obtained identifications refined the morphological analyses, and the remaining identifications supported the morphological analyses completely.Show less
The large mammal material described in this MA-thesis comes from the open brown coal quarry near Schöningen (Niedersachen, Germany). This quarry contains several Pleistocene sites. The focus of...Show moreThe large mammal material described in this MA-thesis comes from the open brown coal quarry near Schöningen (Niedersachen, Germany). This quarry contains several Pleistocene sites. The focus of this MA-thesis is on the site Schö 13 II. This site became famous when in 1994 several wooden artefacts and wooden spears were found among the remains of several horses. The site consists of several layers, Schö 13 II-1 till Schö 13 II-5, representing the Reinsdorf Interglacial. Previous research has been done on the large mammal assemblage on layer Schö 13 II-4, the spear horizon. In this thesis large mammal material from layer Schö 13 II-1 till Schö 13 II-4 will be looked at and compared. The material of layer Schö 13 II-5 is scarce and in bad condition. The large mammal assemblages of the different layers show the development of the second part of an interglacial, with interglacial species like Sus scrofa and Capreolus capreolus in layer Schö 13 II-1, the interglacial maximum. Those typical interglacial species disappear in the following layers, although cf. Capreolus capreolus is present in layer Schö 13 II-3. This means the climate was not as cool as previous thought. The large mammal assemblage from layer Schö 13 II-4 is most abundant and shows a cool climate with an open vegetation. Equus mosbachensis dominates the material. This is caused by hunting and butchering activities by hominids. Other species like Bison priscus and Stephanorhinus hemitoechus do confirm a steppe like environment. One molar of the forest dwelling species Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis indicates that some patches of forest should have been present. This means the climate during the deposition of layer Schö 13 II-4 was not as cold as indicated by the pollen analyses. When comparing the large mammal species present in the different layers of the Reinsdorf Interglacial it becomes clear that a large difference in body size is visible between the animals in the oldest and in the youngest layers. This should mean the evolution speed varies during the Middle Pleistocene. Evolution is fast during the Reinsdorf Interglacial. Evolution is therefore not a gradual process. This has consequences for the use of biostratigraphy. The biostratigraphy based on the difference in size between populations should be reconsidered.Show less
In 1983 building plans were made by the municipality of Hoorn for the expansion of the public library at the Gravenstraat in Hoorn, together with the building of a new primary school next to the...Show moreIn 1983 building plans were made by the municipality of Hoorn for the expansion of the public library at the Gravenstraat in Hoorn, together with the building of a new primary school next to the public library. In order to save the present archaeological remains, an excavation was planned. The excavation started on 7 November 1983 and ended on 9 January 1984. From the start of the excavation the foundations a the monastery was found, but on December 6, a large number of bones suddenly appeared. It turned out that the archaeologists had found part of the graveyard of the Agnates convent. Because the graveyard was part of the Agnates convent, it is expected that the deceased nuns of the Agnates convent were buried at their own graveyard. The purpose of this research is to discover the identity of the individuals buried at the Agnates graveyard. To be able to determine the demography and health status of the individuals that were buried at the Agnates graveyard, it is necessary to analyze gender, age at death, stature and pathology of the deceased. The physical anthropological research has shown the following results: [tabel] Due to the distribution of the gender (12% males and 72% females) and the age at death of the non-adults (except one individual all the non-adults were above the 12 years old, so they were allowed to enter the monastery) it is concluded that the individuals buried at the Agnates graveyard were the inhabitants of the Agnates convent. When the stature and the pathology are added to the conclusion, it becomes clear that the inhabitants of the Agnates monastery were most certain part of the higher social class. To be able to see the Agnates convent in a greater context, these conclusions were compared with a contemporary monastery in Hoorn: the Bethlehem convent and two contemporary civil populations from the city of Delft and the city of Dordrecht. The population of the city of Dordrecht was most certain the most prospering population based on the comparisons. The individuals performed a great amount of heavy labor, but also knew the best health care and had most certain access to the most food resources. After the population of Dordrecht, the population of the Agnates convent was most certain the most prospering. The inhabitants had access to enough food resources and knew reasonably good health care. The inhabitants performed little labor (also compared to the Bethlehem convent) and also knew health care and had access to enough food resources during growth, which indicates that these individuals had a relative well-to-do social life. The population of the city of Delft also had access to sufficient food resources, and knew health care, but these individuals also had to perform heavy labor. The population of the city of Dordrecht had to perform heavier labor, but they had also access to better food resources and better health care than the population of Delft. The population of the Bethlehem convent was the worst prospering population based on the comparisons. The population of the Bethlehem convent had to perform heavy labor, while the population consisted mainly out of females, knew little health care and had access to insufficient food resources. Based on the comparisons it may be concluded that the inhabitants of the Agnates convent were quite prosperous and had a relative well-to-do social life. Most of the individuals that were entering the Agnates convent had a higher social position and were still quite young when they started living in the monastery. Apart from the nuns also some priests have lived in the monastery. The inhabitants had to perform labor, but these tasks existed mainly out of simple and light tasks possibly like gardening and handwork. Food and hygiene were average to good and most certain the nuns took care of each other when someone got ill. The graveyard on the terrain of the Agnates convent was most certain for the inhabitants of the monastery only and therefore existed out of mainly females and just a few males (though it has to be taken into account that not the entire graveyard has been excavated).Show less
In this study the sexual dimorphism in canines of a human population from Medieval Delft is analyzed. The buccolingual diameter, mesiodistal diameter, crown height and total length of the canines...Show moreIn this study the sexual dimorphism in canines of a human population from Medieval Delft is analyzed. The buccolingual diameter, mesiodistal diameter, crown height and total length of the canines of 74 individuals were measured, as well as the maxilla-alveolar breadth and length. The sex of the specimen was known through earlier performed ancient DNA analysis. The measurements were analyzed in graphs and Student’s T Tests were performed. It was found that even though the maxillo-alveolar breadth and length did not show any significant differences between males and females, the buccolingual and mesiodistal diameter as well as the root length did show a significant difference. Sexual dimorphism in the dentins is an interesting topic and has been studied by several researchers. Most of these researchers find some sort of dimorphism between males and females. The amount of dimorphism, however, varies per population. To use the canines, or dentins in general, as a sex indicator the analysis has to be compared and verified by a different standard method of sex determination. This study confirms those findings.Show less
