Since the formation of the contemporary Northern-Spanish autonomic community of Cantabria in 1981 the Iron Age has become increasingly important for its regional identity, symbolically embedded in,...Show moreSince the formation of the contemporary Northern-Spanish autonomic community of Cantabria in 1981 the Iron Age has become increasingly important for its regional identity, symbolically embedded in, for example, its name and flag. Although this in itself can be viewed as problematic, it also fuelled more archaeological investigations into Iron Age Cantabria. These investigations have mainly been focused on Iron Age hillforts of which currently approximately fourty-three (43) can be found throughout the autonomic community. The relatively late development of this field of study is one of the reasons why this number is significantly lower than the other northern Spanish autonomic communities of Asturias and Galicia. Simultaneously, Eucalyptus plantations have become the dominant form of forestation covering approximately 8% of total ground surface and forming 19% of the total amount of forests in Cantabria. This vegetation cover is found predominantly in the coastal region, where few of the identified Iron Age hillforts are found and where the plantations encroach on identified hillforts, making identification of new hillforts more difficult. While new digital tools and data for cultural resource management have become available, such as Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), their usage have been limited in this region. To address this issue the research poses the question: ‘How can available methods and tools of archaeological prospection and cultural heritage management be used in an integrated workflow to find, map and preserve Iron Age hillforts under Eucalyptus plantations in Cantabria?’. The proposed integrated workflow consists of narrowing down suitable locations for Iron Age hillforts through object-based predictive modelling (OBPM) and subsequently remote prospection of those locations to identify potential features associated with archaeological sites. To test this approach it has been put into practice. The proposed workflow proved effective, but has also shown limitations. The parameters chosen are most-likely not solely relevant for Iron Age hillforts, consisting out of Geomorophon, incoming visibility-index and out-going visibility index. Also the research focus on Eucalyptus plantations showed a variability of noise in the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for locations under Eucalyptus plantations, sometimes impeding readability of those areas. Nevertheless, the use of Sky View Factor (SVF) and the sufficiently narrowed down study area still proved effective in finding and documenting possible archaeological features, of which fifty (50) different locations have been identified with a variation of characteristics, all adhering to the set parameters. This suggests that the proposed integrated workflow is currently an effective tool in the finding, mapping and preserving archaeological sites near or encroached by Eucalyptus plantations.Show less
During the 13th and 14th centuries, the shipbuilding traditions in the Baltic Sea and North Sea regions underwent significant transformations. From 1000 to 1300, large cargo ships built in the...Show moreDuring the 13th and 14th centuries, the shipbuilding traditions in the Baltic Sea and North Sea regions underwent significant transformations. From 1000 to 1300, large cargo ships built in the Nordic shipbuilding tradition dominated the maritime trade. After 1300 the supremacy in the region's maritime trade shifted to German merchants and the Hanseatic League, leading to the disappearance of the Nordic shipbuilding tradition and the rise of cogs as the most common cargo vessels in Northern Europe. Initially, the shift from Nordic ships to cogs was attributed to the latter's perceived better performance, as it was believed that it was technically impossible to build large ships in the Nordic tradition. However, this assumption was challenged when large cargo vessels built in the Nordic tradition were discovered. As a result, scholars shifted their focus from technical explanations to socio-economic ones. These socio-economic narratives linked the dominance of cogs mainly to their lower shipbuilding costs, as well as the commercial, political, and military power of the Hanseatic League. Besides the differences in building techniques, Nordic cargo ships and cogs had very different hull shapes and therefore differences in performance are to be expected even when comparing ships of similar sizes. However, a comprehensive performance comparison between Nordic cargo ships and cogs has not been made since most shipwrecks are only partially preserved, and the evaluation of ship performance requires a complete hull. The 3D model reconstruction of shipwrecks provides thus an opportunity to evaluate the performance capabilities of ancient vessels. This thesis aims to apply modern naval engineering approaches, typically used for modern ships, to assess and compare the performance of Nordic cargo ships and cogs using 3D reconstruction models. The goal is to determine whether the socio-economic reasons for the shift from Nordic cargo ships to cogs went hand in hand with an improvement in ship performance. To this purpose weight and stability calculations, as well as speed estimations and seakeeping calculations are conducted on the 3D model reconstructions of the Big Ship of Wismar, a 12th century Nordic cargo ship, and the Bremen cog, a 14th century cog of similar size. The results reveal significant differences between the Big Ship of Wismar and the Bremen cog in all the examined performance characteristics. Overall, the Big Ship of Wismar demonstrates superior transverse stability, speed, and seakeeping behaviour than the Bremen cog. These findings, together with the evidence from calculations on other ships and sea trials on full-scale replicas, indicate that the socio-economic factors had such a substantial impact on shaping the observed transformations in shipbuilding traditions, that they outweighed the reduction in ship performance. Additionally, cogs' key features, such as high freeboard, full hull lines, closed deck, and superstructure, appear to have played a crucial role in their supremacy. These characteristics not only allowed them to transport cargo in bulk, but also provided a defensive advantage against attacks. While Nordic cargo ships exhibited superior speed, stability, and seaworthiness, cogs were more suitable for meeting the social demands of the time. This thesis demonstrates that modern naval architecture methods can effectively be applied to 3D model reconstructions of ancient ships to enhance the understanding of ship performance in maritime archaeology. Additionally, it proves that evaluating ship performance can provide valuable insights on broader research questions, such as understanding the social changes that would have influenced and driven the transformative processes observed in shipbuilding traditions.Show less
For over a century aerial photography has been used in archaeology to detect traces of the past in the landscape. With the emergence of citizen science projects and vast amounts of remotely sensed...Show moreFor over a century aerial photography has been used in archaeology to detect traces of the past in the landscape. With the emergence of citizen science projects and vast amounts of remotely sensed data, Leiden University has developed a successful citizen science project in the Veluwe and Utrechtse Heuvelrug called ‘Heritage Quest’. Because of its success in both identifying hitherto unknown archaeological heritage and in engaging participants with their local heritage, other actors such as the province of Zeeland have shown interest in adapting the Heritage Quest formula or developing their own citizen science project. However, due to the different nature of the Holocene, agricultural landscape of Zeeland compared to the Pleistocene, forested landscape of the Veluwe and Utrechtse Heuvelrug and differences in the archaeological heritage which can be found in both regions, a different approach to citizen science than the approach of the original Heritage Quest was needed. This thesis research focusses on the possibilities of a ‘Heritage Quest’ type citizen science project for the province of Zeeland. Instead of using LiDAR data, which is useful in mapping archaeological objects through the canopy of trees and bushes, orthomosaic satellite imagery disclosed through PDOK has been used to assess the potential viability of a citizen science project in Zeeland. Because of the agricultural nature of most of the province, satellite imagery could potentially be a powerful tool in identifying archaeological heritage. The imagery used in this research was remotely sensed during the summer months of 2016 up to 2022 and has a ground resolution of 25 centimeters. For the year 2021 satellite imagery was only available from the spring months, with a ground resolution of 8 centimeters. For the year 2022 both the summer imagery with a ground resolution of 25 centimeters and spring imagery with a ground resolution of 8 centimeters was used. To assess the viability of using satellite imagery, three different object classes have been chosen to explore further, resulting in a total of 24 different archaeological features which can be seen in the imagery and have been described in this research. Furthermore, to assess which aspects of the original Heritage Quest project could be adapted or needed to be changed, the original Heritage Quest project and three other international citizen science projects have been described after which they were critically reviewed in the discussion chapter. This thesis research has resulted in the discovery of multiple hitherto-unknown archaeological features, including potential Zeeuwse mounds, dykes, fortifications from the Dutch revolt and traces of the former cultural landscape of Zeeland. Using satellite imagery to identify archaeological heritage in the Province of Zeeland by means of a citizen science project can not only provide a lot of new archaeological data, but also increase historical awareness and create a sense of stewardship in its participants. This would not only lead to the identification of more archaeological sites, but also further protection efforts of archaeological heritage in Zeeland. Although there will be some 73 differences from the original Heritage Quest project, a very similar citizen science project for the province of Zeeland which would include some prior training could yield valuable results.Show less
Social networks are analysed to identify connections between archaeological phenomena, such as pottery assemblages, communication networks, and sites. This can be done by linking these phenomena...Show moreSocial networks are analysed to identify connections between archaeological phenomena, such as pottery assemblages, communication networks, and sites. This can be done by linking these phenomena using statistical methods or abstract network models. However, the use of abstract, computer-generated networks to study empirical datasets has been underused in archaeology. Therefore, employing computational models from other academic disciplines can benefit from this lack of abstract network analysis. This study analyses how various computer-generated networks influence the rate of adoption of the Bell Beaker pottery in the Lower Rhine Region. The Bell Beaker pottery is a Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age material culture that had been widespread across Western and Central Europe. For more than a century, there has been much debate on how the Bell Beaker phenomenon became prevalent in the archaeological record. The spread of the Bell Beaker pottery can be analysed in the context of the Lower Rhine Region by using the sociological concept of diffusion of innovations. In this thesis, the diffusion of innovations is applied to an agent-based model in which the spread of the Bell Beaker phenomenon in the Lower Rhine Region is simulated. In this model, various computer-generated networks were tested to analyse which network type fits the Bell Beaker data the best. This data is comprised of pottery frequencies from settlement sites which were chronologically organised to show how the Bell Beaker pottery was distributed over time. The results from the simulation were compared to the communication network of the Lower Rhine Region devised by Kleijne (2019). The results of this comparison show that the diffusion of the Bell Beaker phenomenon was initially fast but stagnated later in time. The diffusion was transmitted over a network structure in which a few nodes have a central position in connecting the entire network (scale-free network). The results indicate that using abstract, computer-generated networks is a suitable approach to assessing archaeological networks. Additionally, the application of theoretical and computational models from other academic disciplines can contribute to archaeological theory building. Further research is needed to test other types of network structures that were not applicable to the model used in this thesis.Show less
The primary objective of this thesis is to construct a predictive model that can be used to study the Stone Age on insular, partly submerged and submerged landscapes of Greece. The chosen research...Show moreThe primary objective of this thesis is to construct a predictive model that can be used to study the Stone Age on insular, partly submerged and submerged landscapes of Greece. The chosen research area is the central Ionian Sea, as it combines diverse landscapes that have undergone dynamic changes due to eustatism and high tectonic activity. In detail, the model aimed at studying various environmental factors and their effect on the distribution of finds across the three main time periods of the Stone Age, both in terms of their original deposition and their present-day location. In addition, it aimed at studying and integrating social and cultural factors, to explore the available digital material and to use primarily open source data. The materials used were known locations of archaeological finds based on the “Prehistoric Stones of Greece” dataset, and a variety of digital maps, retrieved by European Union sites such as Copernicus and EMODnet and Natura 2000, and by national sites, for example YPEN. These datasets were open source with various Creative Commons licenses. The resolution of maps varied across each source. In order to properly examine the datasets and assess their contribution, the following process was followed. First, the known locations per time periods were split in two parts, from which the 70% was used in building the model and the rest 30% was kept for testing the model. Subsequently, the known locations were studied along with a series of maps in order to establish patterns, which were then compared to the literature. The main potential disturbances of soil and factors hindering research and findability of finds were also considered. The main factors affecting the distribution were considered to be proximity to water, elevation, depth and landslide susceptibility. No social or cultural factors could be integrated in the model. Three more factors were modelled and added, including the Natura 2000 areas, forested and increase artificial disturbances areas. Six predictive values were created, with number (1) combining low elevations (<100masl) and proximity to modern-day water bodies, and the lowest (6) being the underwater areas with depth higher than -1000. One model was created for all three time periods, due to the overall similarity of observed patterns. The resulting model was tested with the withheld sample of locations and it showed that the values carrying the majority of finds are Value 3 and 1 for the Palaeolithic and the Mesolithic, and Value 1 and then 3 for the Neolithic. In conclusion, post depositional processes seem to have largely affected the 150 distribution, but predictive modelling can still be effective. In term of social and cultural factors, more research is needed before they can be integrated in a model, especially on the first two periods of the Stone Age. Finally, it is possible to create a predictive model of the Greek Stone Age by using mostly open source material and open data.Show less
Artefact classification is one of the main themes and an important practice since the beginnings of archaeology, while machine learning (ML) became one of the most efficient approaches to increase...Show moreArtefact classification is one of the main themes and an important practice since the beginnings of archaeology, while machine learning (ML) became one of the most efficient approaches to increase our knowledge in a number of disciplines. This thesis describes a ML model developed for the classification of pottery assemblages, identifying its benefits and limitations, focusing on the importance of artefacts features for the identification of vessel shape classes, and to what extent this kind of knowledge can be used to replicate classifications made by experts. The research also analyses different classes structures based on the ML model. The research dataset was based on an assemblage of pottery vessels representing nine shape classes and four archaeological sites from the Bronze Age Northeastern Syria, made available by the Arcane project. The classification methodology was based on principles of quantitative archaeology, using vessel measurements and categorical features, implemented by supervised and unsupervised learning ML algorithms and supporting methods from the scikit-learn and SciPy libraries. The Anaconda platform, the Jupyter notebook environment and ImageJ for image processing complete the main software used through the research. The research results indicate benefits and limitations in the application of ML models in the classification of pottery assemblages. The limitations are especially related to number of samples versus target classes, the homogeneity of the vessels context in the dataset, and the quality of data available for the samples. The results suggest that a ML model can be useful to experts, assisting in the identification of the most relevant artefact features and similarities among classes of artefacts, as well possible misclassifications, ultimately providing new insights into the classification of pottery assemblages in archaeology.Show less
The reuse of agent-based models (ABM) is widely recognized to have a number of benefits. Not only is it often economical to reuse models, it can also be a great methodological test and tool for...Show moreThe reuse of agent-based models (ABM) is widely recognized to have a number of benefits. Not only is it often economical to reuse models, it can also be a great methodological test and tool for theory-building. However, reuse, like replication, of ABM is still rare in archaeology, and little critical discussion exists on the topic. This thesis aims to open up a discussion regarding the reuse of ABM in archaeology, its potential, and its limitations. It features a reapplication of Brughmans and Poblome’s well-studied MERCURY ABM to a new case study and data-set: Sigillata in the Roman West as seen through Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum’s Samian Research database. In this process, new insights are gained into the MERCURY model, and challenges to reimplementing and reusing the ABM are identified. The thesis concludes by discussing the general challenges to and potential of ABM reuse in archaeology as gauged from the reapplication exercise.Show less
The analytical function of 3D data beyond visualisation and aesthetics has been a well-discussed issue in archaeological literature. Several recent projects have proposed case studies and workflows...Show moreThe analytical function of 3D data beyond visualisation and aesthetics has been a well-discussed issue in archaeological literature. Several recent projects have proposed case studies and workflows that implement three-dimensional data in 3D GIS software, yet few have truly utilised 3D modelling as a valued part of the analytical process. This begs the question, is there an added value of 3D approaches over traditional GIS, and what kinds of analytical possibilities does 3D documentation provide? This project aims to address these questions by integrating all available site datasets in a single, ‘living’ 3D GIS database which can be accessed and edited either in the ‘back end’ SQL database or the ‘front end’ 3D GIS. Furthermore, this project integrates 3D models created by structure-from-motion photogrammetry and establishes a number of useful analytical tools for working with three-dimensional spatial data, such as using artefact clusters to determine the function of space, and to comment on the taphonomic processes of the site. This project introduces the workflow for a fully integrated, interoperable database using 3D GIS, whereby three-dimensional data can be stored, viewed, and analysed alongside traditional GIS components and relevant site data such as (but by no means limited to) photographs, published related literature, and field notes. The project utilises the data from trenches B and H at Dhaskalio, Greece, excavated between 2016 and 2018. This site presented an ideal case study for the incorporation of 3D models as the project aimed to use an entirely digital recording system with photogrammetric models taken of every stratigraphic layer excavated and each architectural feature on site. This approach presents an advantageous use of 3D data in the intra-site interpretation processes.Show less
In this thesis, the potential of archaeological predictive modelling within England’s Archaeological Heritage Management (AHM) system is assessed through the case study of Roman-age Hertfordshire,...Show moreIn this thesis, the potential of archaeological predictive modelling within England’s Archaeological Heritage Management (AHM) system is assessed through the case study of Roman-age Hertfordshire, in south-east England. The case study involves the creation of an archaeological predictive model from the bottom-up, using only open-access data. An assessment is also made on the quality of the open-access digital infrastructure within England, as well as on the knowledge that can be gained from the creation and product of the model. A detailed description of the collected data provides information about the environment (elevation, soil, geology, hydrogeology and river system), the social aspects of the landscape (Roman road network and towns) in addition to the modern-day factors which impact planning permissions (land-use, modern roads, protected areas and scheduled monuments). The quality of the environmental data is evaluated for its applicability to the Roman landscape in Hertfordshire. Archaeological site data (n = 4358), provided by the Archaeological Data Service (ADS), is categorised into site types (settlements, economic, ritual, military, water sources and miscellaneous). The representability of the archaeological data is evaluated for potential observational biases. The Roman Hertfordshire predictive model is created using deductive techniques (weighted multi-criteria analysis) and an inductive technique (site density). The final product predicts five areas of archaeological potential within Roman Hertfordshire, ranging from ‘Very High’ to ‘Very Low’. The model is evaluated for its predictive abilities by an unused testing sample of archaeological sites. The accuracy and precision of the model’s predictions are tested using Kvamme’s Gain equation, producing a high-yielding score of 0.72. The applications of the Roman Hertfordshire predictive model are discussed in the context of its uses within the modern development process. Proximity-based analysis of the different site types is explored in regards to water sources, Roman roads and Verulamium (St. Albans). The elevation of different site types are also analysed.Show less
This thesis concerns the importance of replication studies in agent-based modelling, specifically in the field of archaeology. As a case study, the MERCURY model by Brughmans and Poblome is...Show moreThis thesis concerns the importance of replication studies in agent-based modelling, specifically in the field of archaeology. As a case study, the MERCURY model by Brughmans and Poblome is replicated. In the first chapter, a background is given to ABM in general, as well as to replication and its importance and scarcity. Replication allows us to confirm the findings of existing ABM models, or reject them. The second chapter gives an abstract of Brughmans and Poblome’s research. It includes the archaeological background to their research, a precise description of the MERCURY model and a summary of Brughmans and Poblome’s conclusions. In chapter three, the process of replicating MERCURY is explained. Each version of the replication is described in great detail. This final version is statistically compared to the original model. The replication was found to be, for the most part, statistically equivalent to the original. The source of the despondencies between the various versions of the replication and the original model were due to inaccuracies in the description of the model as well as due to my own coding mistakes. Chapter four includes a brief discussion of existing criticism of the MERCURY model, as well as my own critiques. These critiques are mostly concern the details of the model and the way the authors interpreted their data. Additional experiments are performed to complement the experiments in the original study. I conclude that some of the issues I identify could weaken the original authors’ conclusions. The relation of my replication of MERCURY to other replication studies is discussed in chapter five. The final chapter my research questions are answered. I also shortly discuss how my experiences with replication could help future researches who want to publish agent-based models or replication studies.Show less
The use of computer applications has irrevocably changed the way archaeology is done, as well as redefined what it means to do “good” archaeology. This has brought about numerous methodological...Show moreThe use of computer applications has irrevocably changed the way archaeology is done, as well as redefined what it means to do “good” archaeology. This has brought about numerous methodological questions concerning the use of data, data sources, and the software used in analyses. This thesis seeks to explore some of these issues, including the re-use or borrowing of data, open source data, and the use of FOSS programs within archaeology. In order to answer these questions, the spatial relationship between the terraces in the Swiss Alps was investigated. The study area is located in the area surrounding (and including) Ramosch in the Lower Engadine, Switzerland. These terraces have been in use since at least the Middle Ages, and could potentially date to the Bronze Age. The terraces were documented based on remote sensing data and digitized in QGIS 1.8. The spatial relationship of the terraces is primarily determined by the viability of the land for agriculture (soil composition and sunlight), followed by the distance from modern settlements, modern features in the landscape (i.e. buildings, roads, and waterways), and access to water. This research shows that it is possible to do archaeological research by recycling data from third-party sources. All of the data used in this project was obtained for no cost. The spatial resolution of the general-purpose data and recycled data was more than adequate and the lack of metadata was not a major obstacle. The largest hindrance with using data collected by others for an alternative purpose is finding the right data and gaining access to this data. The processes of understanding the data without metadata can be completed by comparing the unknown datasets to those that are known. The use of FOSS programs is extremely beneficial. The low cost, easy accessibility and large online communities have helped the FOSS movement to thrive. The ability to share information unhindered by licensing and terms and conditions promotes the continuation of accessible research. However, FOSS is not inherently better than proprietary software. The primary requirement for the use of a program should be its ability to perform all the required functions necessary for good research. Show less
The rural settlements of the Roman Somme (Northern France) are poorly understood in terms of site location. Although the physical landscape of the area is rather smooth, local variations influence...Show moreThe rural settlements of the Roman Somme (Northern France) are poorly understood in terms of site location. Although the physical landscape of the area is rather smooth, local variations influence the distribution of sites. Furthermore, the socio-economic context around Roman farms plays an important part in human behaviours of settlement creation. Predictive modelling constitutes an effective tool for dissecting settlement patterns and understanding their locational parameters through the quantification and evaluation of formal hypotheses. A specific methodology was tailored for the subject and inspired by theory-driven and cognitive predictive modelling approaches. It involves the creation of multivariate models through weighted map algebra, which are then confronted with the distribution of archaeological settlements in four micro-regions along the Somme River. The correlation of the variables with archaeological location indicates that slopes, landforms and the relative distance to rivers are the main influential factors of the physical environment. Socio-economic parameters such as the relative distance to cities, secondary agglomerations and Roman roads are even more influential. Notwithstanding the lack of representation of settlements in the Late Roman period, site location follows similar trends from the 1st century AD to the end of the 4th century AD. Villas prefer economically well connected locations, as do stone-built and post-built settlements. Nevertheless, no parameter can be considered as deterministic in site location. This demonstrates the diversity of choices and influences which favoured the creation of Roman sites in the landscape.Show less
