A preliminary investigation in the milestones found in the Roman provinces of Germania Inferior, Germania Superior and Belgica. In this thesis the milestones of these provinces have been submitted...Show moreA preliminary investigation in the milestones found in the Roman provinces of Germania Inferior, Germania Superior and Belgica. In this thesis the milestones of these provinces have been submitted to both a quantitative and a qualitative investigation. By doing so the author hoped to determine whether any pattern could be found in road building processes. Milestones were used for this as accurately date roadworks processes.Show less
As individuals living in a society, our activities, diet, and health are influenced by our socioeconomic position in said society. This amongst others means that our socioeconomic standings play a...Show moreAs individuals living in a society, our activities, diet, and health are influenced by our socioeconomic position in said society. This amongst others means that our socioeconomic standings play a large part in our social and bodily experience, therefore also in the level and kind of labour we are involved in. Labour is often highly routinised, as certain actions and movements are performed day in day out. Therefore, labour is an important aspect of ones ‘lived experience’. Osteoarthritis, a condition causing the degeneration of synovial joints and surrounding soft tissue, is the most prevalent disease in past and current societies. It is also the most frequently used marker for establishing and examining activity patterns within archaeological populations. The aim of this study is to figure out how differences in socioeconomic status and strenuous labour are embodied in a post medieval Dutch city. In order to answer this, this study analyses the severity and prevalence of osteoarthritis in two skeletal population samples of different socioeconomic status from the same city, Eindhoven. The individuals of high status were buried inside of the St. Catharinakerk, while the low status individuals were buried in the cemetery outside of this church. The high status sample consists of 13 adult individuals and the low status sample consists of 52 adult individuals. In total 40 skeletal elements have been analysed per studied individual, 20 on the left side and 20 on the right side, by using the method proposed by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Following this, the scores resulting from the study of the skeletal remains were statistically analysed using ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance). This allows to control the sample population for a covariant, in this research age-at-death was controlled for. The statistical analysis showed that the low socioeconomic status individuals were significantly more affected by osteoarthritis in the acromial end of the left clavicle and right humeral head, while the high socioeconomic status individuals were significantly more affected in the distal radii and both left and right scaphoid. The most likely explanation for this is that the low and high socioeconomic status populations engaged in different types of activities. The low socioeconomic status individuals would have likely been subjected to repetitive and strenuous activities involving the shoulder such as lifting, pulling, holding, and carrying heavy objects. Yet, while the high socioeconomic status individuals of Eindhoven probably did not engage in the same repetitive and strenuous activities as the low socioeconomic status individuals, the prevalence and severity of osteoarthritis in the wrist does indicate that they too did experience strain on joints. This would have most likely been caused by the amount of writing the high socioeconomic status individuals had to withstand. Hence, this study concludes that osteoarthritis and thus strenuous labour is embodied differently among the high and low socioeconomic status populations of post-medieval Eindhoven.Show less
A collection of fish remains recovered from the Upper Palaeolithic site of Les Pedroses in the Spanish province of Asturias have been examined to determine the nature of accumulation. Research...Show moreA collection of fish remains recovered from the Upper Palaeolithic site of Les Pedroses in the Spanish province of Asturias have been examined to determine the nature of accumulation. Research focused on the anatomy, taxonomy, taphonomy and osteometry of the remains. The site is located along a tributary of the Sela river valley Asturias in the municipality of Ribadesella. Previous excavations have uncovered evidence of human occupation ranging from the Solutrean to the Early Holocene. The fish remains were recovered from four stratigraphical layers found at the back of the vestibule along the northern wall of the cave. The oldest layer has been radiocarbon dated to 12.250±40 BP or 14.328-14.004 Cal BP, which puts it well within the Late Upper Magdalenian. It is followed by a transitionary layer, an Early Holocene layer and a superimposed layer. Taxonomic identification of the remains was conducted with the help of fish bone reference collections housed at the Laboratory for Archaeozoological Studies of Leiden and the Laboratory for Zooarchaeological Research at the University of Amsterdam. A family, genus or species level identification could be obtained for the majority of fish remains found in the assemblage. A mix of marine and freshwater fishes were identified with Clupeids and Salmonids being best represented taxa in all four stratigraphical layers. Vertebrae were by far the best represented skeletal elements. Over half of the skeletal elements in all four stratigraphical layer could be identified as vertebrae. All skeletal elements were measured according to the guidelines established in Watt et al. (1997) for vertebrae and Morales & Rosenlund (1979), when applicable. Total length and weight of the fishes was estimated through the use of global rachidean profiles. Clupeid and salmonids vertebrae, the most common taxa and skeletal elements, were compared to two reference specimens taken from the Laboratory for Archaeozoological Studies of Leiden. We estimate the clupeids had fork length of less than 24 cm and the salmonids had a total length of around 29.5 cm and weighted roughly 200 grammes. The total length and weight of all other taxa falls somewhere in-between, likely on the side of the Clupeids. The presence of bone surface modifications such as compression or digestion and degree of fragmentation was documented for each skeletal element in the assemblage. Over 90% of the remains were fragmented with 10 to 20% of vertebrae showing signs of compression or digestion. The absence of chopmarks, cutmarks or burning marks and the overall small size ranges of the fishes discounts an anthropogenic origin of accumulation. The osteometrical, taphonomical, taxonomical and anatomical aspects of the assemblage best fit the characteristics of fish bones deposited by otters (Lutra lutra L.). The seasonality inferred from the fishes suggests human occupied Les Pedroses during the late summer and autumn months. This research has illustrated the archaeological value in fish remains, which are typically understudied in the region.Show less
Currently in Spain, the Quimbaya collection has been considered an extraordinary example of pre-Columbian archaeology since its unearthing in the late XIX century. Through guaquería, political...Show moreCurrently in Spain, the Quimbaya collection has been considered an extraordinary example of pre-Columbian archaeology since its unearthing in the late XIX century. Through guaquería, political gifts and many changes of location, this group of artefacts is currently still at the forefront of archaeological debate, though not just due to its artistic and historical value, but due to the controversy surrounding its presence in Madrid, and the petitions of repatriation made by Colombia. This paper will take the Quimbaya collection and explore its history and technical aspects, as well as presenting the legal, ethical, and cultural debates it has sparked, culminating in a look towards the potential futures of this collection.Show less
One of the most evocative archaeological cultures in the Netherlands is the Funnel Beaker culture, further referred to as TRB. During the TRB period megalithic burial structures were erected, the...Show moreOne of the most evocative archaeological cultures in the Netherlands is the Funnel Beaker culture, further referred to as TRB. During the TRB period megalithic burial structures were erected, the hunebedden. Most of the hunebedden have been excavated and are located in the north-east of the Netherlands (specifically the province of Drenthe). The excavations of the hunebedden were not very thorough but did however reveal a lot of information about burial practices of the TRB culture. For instance, the hunebedden were communal burials in which multiple people were buried. Along with the deceased, a range of different grave goods were provided, including flint tools and pottery. Due to the excavations, and the visibility of the hunebedden, a lot is known about them. This does not apply to the settlements of the TRB, so where did the people of the TRB live (van Gijn & Bakker, 2005, p. 288-289; van der Sanden, 2017, p. 4; Wentink, 2006, p. 33)? Settlements of the TRB are scarce, which results in less information about the settlements or the way of life of the TRB people. There are however a few settlements known of the TRB, the site of Slootdorp-Bouwlust is for instance one them as well as the site of Haren De Vork, which is examined in this thesis. What is known about the way of life of the TRB people is that their means of survival was in both hunting (and fishing) and agriculture. Their agricultural way of life consisted mostly of a method that is called slash and burn, where parts of forests were burned down to create fertile soil on which crops could be cultivated and harvested. For this agricultural system flint axes, strike-a-lights and sickle blades were used. They also held a range of livestock including pigs, goats and cattle, however no chickens were held (van der Sanden, 2017, p. 6; van Gijn 2013, p. 26-27). These people possibly lived in two-aisled houses. Within the settlements many different activities had probably been carried out, including hide working, wood working and plant working. For these activities a range of flint tools were used including scrapers and axes. The TRB people also produced a distinctive type of pottery, decorated by the deeply incised decoration (van Gijn & Bakker, 2005, p. 282). To interpret what kind activities were conducted at a settlement site, use-wear studies of the ubiquitous flint artefacts recovered from a site can reveal something about the activities carried out. In this thesis a use-wear analysis has been conducted for a selection of flint artefacts recovered at the site of Haren De Vork (Haren, the Netherlands). The site of Haren De Vork is possibly one of the scarce settlements of the TRB found in the Netherlands, and was excavated in 2017. The excavation brought forth a large amount of flint artefacts, namely 20.000 artefacts. Due to the large amount of flint artefacts that were found during the excavations, the finds have been divided in clusters (van Kruining et al., 2018, p. 14; Devriendt, 2021, p. 2-4). In this thesis the 50 artefacts were selected from two different clusters, clusters 3 & 4. Of cluster 3, 11 artefacts were selected and from cluster 4, 39 artefacts were selected. This difference in sample size can be explained through the sizes and the preservation of the artefacts per cluster. Hence, cluster 4 is the bigger cluster and seems to have better preserved artefacts. The selected artefacts of both clusters have been analysed by the so-called low- and high-power approach, where the artefacts are examined through two different microscopes. Among the selected artefacts of both clusters, there also burned artefacts. Cluster 3 consisted of 45% of burned objects, and cluster 4 of 32%. This complicated the analysis but in most cases traces were still visible. Three artefacts from cluster 3 were not interpretable due to heavy burning. The other artefacts showed evidence of hide working, plant working, wood working and bone working, of which hide working was the most prominent activity. The most prominent motion was cutting. For cluster 4 it was not possible to interpret four artefacts. On these artefacts there were either no traces or the traces were not interpretable due to burning. On the remaining 35 artefacts traces of hide working, plant working, bone working and wood working were inferred, of which again hide working was the most prominent. For cluster 4 the prominent motion is scraping but it is closely followed by cutting the contact material. For both clusters there was also a number of edges on which traces were seen but the contact material or motion could not be inferred. The artefacts with the probable used edges were therefore included in the analysis. The preservation of the artefacts of cluster 4 was better in cluster 3, which was clearly visible while conducting the use-wear analysis. Based on the results of the use-wear analysis it is clear that within cluster 3 and 4 a range of different activities were conducted. The main activity conducted at the site was probably hide working (both scraping and cutting hide). In cluster 3, the activities were diverse and no real main activity could be interpreted. Due to the high burning rate within cluster 3 it is believed by MUG archaeologists that within this cluster fire-related activities were conducted. This could however not be proven by the analysis. For cluster 4 it was seen that scraping hide was the main activity of the cluster, closely followed by cutting plant and plant-like materials. Bone working traces were scarce in both clusters which can indicate that this activity was probably conducted elsewhere. The activities are diverse and this diversity is consistent with a (permanent) settlement, which is also the interpretation of the site. The use-wear analysis supports the interpretation by showing the multiple activities and hide working as a possible main activity.Show less
In June of 1673, the French king Louis XIV, The Sun King, lay siege on the Dutch city of Maastricht and conquered it in only 13 days as part of his campaign in the Franco-Dutch war. After that,...Show moreIn June of 1673, the French king Louis XIV, The Sun King, lay siege on the Dutch city of Maastricht and conquered it in only 13 days as part of his campaign in the Franco-Dutch war. After that, during the French occupation of Maastricht between 1673 and 1678, famous military engineer Sebastién le Prestre de Vauban made alterations to the fortifications of Maastricht. The events leading up to the siege, the siege itself and the aftermath of the siege are most intensively studied by historical sources. This results in the fact that the current state of spatial knowledge about these events is limited. This study aims to expand on the current state of knowledge about the preparations, execution and aftermath of the siege of Maastricht in 1673 by including cartographic and archaeological sources. By comparing these three types of sources, and investigating whether they confirm, complement or contradict each other, the current state of knowledge on the topic is expanded.Show less
RESEARCH QUESTIONS: The study on Entheseal Changes has been going on for the past 50 years. Through this thesis, we look into understanding Entheseal Changes and their development playing a role in...Show moreRESEARCH QUESTIONS: The study on Entheseal Changes has been going on for the past 50 years. Through this thesis, we look into understanding Entheseal Changes and their development playing a role in understanding socioeconomic status. The study was conducted with the primary goal of understanding socioeconomic status within the Eindhoven society and also to see if it was possible to differentiate socioeconomic differences with EC as a proxy, along with archaeological data on the status between the rich and the poor acquired through archives and previously documented details on social class, burial practices within Eindhoven. Of course, along with the central question in focus was a list of other questions that helped better understand the main topic. This included studying the correlation between sex, age, and Entheseal Changes and analyzing handedness and bilateral coordination for males and females. Through the essay, it was essential to analyze the relationship between the left and right of each entheseal change to understand which muscles could have worked together to provide an idea on which activities might have been performed, as the hypothesis is that certain activities require the use of specific muscles. MATERIALS AND METHODS: For the thesis, the author has used the Sint CatharinaKerk, Eindhoven collection to conduct the study. A total of 19 skeletons were used to conduct the studying, with age groups limited to Middle Adult and Late Young adults (No sub-adults or older adult individuals were added to the study), using a wide range of statistical techniques (namely, Spearman’s Rho, Paired t-test, ANCOVA, Wilcoxon test and Mann Whitney test) all applied using SPSS. However, the Entheseal Changes need to be scored before applying the statistical techniques. The scoring was done using scoring developed by Mariotti et al. For the thesis, the list of Entheseal Changes includes Pectoralis Major muscle, Latissimus Dorsi, Teres Major muscle, Deltoid muscle, Brachioradialis muscle, Biceps Brachii muscle, Triceps brachii muscle. RESULTS: When testing Entheseal Changes and burial inside and outside, it seems to provide a result that showed some correlation between being buried inside or outside and having a high sum total Entheseal change; while both age and sex correlation to Entheseal Changes seemed to give the result of no statistically significance, for both. However, when mean scores for each age group were acquired, it seems to back the idea of age affecting the pronunciation of Entheseal changes. Interestingly, when a total sum score was achieved for Entheseal Changes to correlate against sex, it seems that male and female skeletons developed differently, with the male having higher scores for most of the muscles. However, the female skeletons have equally developed and suggested possible strenuous activity being equally performed by both female members of the society. Results were similar for handedness, too, as no clear distinction was made on whether individuals were mostly right or left-handed. However, testing for asymmetry did show two Entheseal Changes that were slightly different from the others, Latissimus Dorsi and Deltoid muscles, which was backed by the descriptive analysis test (which was able to show Deltoid muscle being more asymmetric than the Latissimus Dorsi muscles), although when testing for bilateral coordination between the left and right of each Entheseal Changes provided results that showed some level of correlation existing between the left and right of each muscle, however, the paired t-test that was applied showed a p-value of higher than 0.1, suggesting not enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis. Finally, the activity test provided us with results that showed us a possible wide range of possible activities that were partaken by the different socioeconomic classes. A social class distinction did exist as nether classes performed similar activities. So, in particular, a conclusion was possible to draw that socioeconomic status did play a role in the development of Entheseal Changes. DISCUSSION: The criteria applied to the research were well thought out, and the method of scoring and statistical techniques used were adequate. However, the sample size was too short, and the results provided were vague and not concrete enough to make a definitive conclusion. However, using Entheseal changes along with archaeological data and applying the scoring and the statistical techniques provided insight into the socioeconomic status and possible activities performed by the different members of society from different socioeconomic statuses.Show less
This study aims to use the presence and severity of dental disease as a mechanism to assess and infer upon any potential dietary differences between the socio-economic classes of Post-Medieval...Show moreThis study aims to use the presence and severity of dental disease as a mechanism to assess and infer upon any potential dietary differences between the socio-economic classes of Post-Medieval Eindhoven. The identification of socio-economic status was calculated from burial location, wherein those interred within church walls were deemed to be of high status, whereas those interred within the cemetery were supposed to be of a lower socio-economic status. In terms of the history of the city of Eindhoven and Sint-Catharinakerk, in particular, suffer from a lack of archival evidence through a series of fires and sacking meaning that life within Medieval and post-Medieval Eindhoven is largely unknown. For the completion of this study, 45 individuals were analysis for their presence and severity of carious lesions, dental calculus and periodontal disease. With any potential pathological differences between the burial classes, and subsequently the inferred socio-economic classes being statistically analysed using both z and Somers’d tests. These results demonstrated that significant differences were found within the severity of dental calculus, with the higher status population possessing a higher presence and severity than the lower status population. Whereas, the presence and severity of periodontal disease and carious lesions presented no significant differences. The results and associated differences, place suspicion onto many of the conclusions collected from the historical record, particularly within the assumptions of meat and sugar consumption across the higher and lower status communities. Whereas as a whole, this study does suggest that the diet of the elites reflected a more mixed hybridised diet, which was contrasted by the lower status diet which is likely to have been dominated by traditional agrarian foods such as grains and cereals. This trend is likely to have been exaggerated within periods strife with the wealth and connections of higher status population offering greater resistance, when compared to the lower status population. But ultimately, this is a story of balancing multiple factors, with external factors such as oral hygiene, possessing profound limiting and causing impacts on the examined pathological conditions. Thusly outlining that it is vital that the effects of these on a past population must be considered and better understood, if further research must be undertaken.Show less
This thesis aims to determine the level of continuity of cosmological beliefs across the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in the British Isles. Through the conceptual framework of a tiered cosmos,...Show moreThis thesis aims to determine the level of continuity of cosmological beliefs across the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in the British Isles. Through the conceptual framework of a tiered cosmos, it is suggested that cosmological beliefs on either side of the divide were remarkably similar. In both periods, populations viewed the world in 3 distinct tiers: a sky realm, a natural world, and an underworld, and had ritual specialists who could transcend the planes of the cosmos with the aid of spiritual guides, often represented in animal form. These cosmological beliefs are derived from experiences in altered states of consciousness, which are embedded in the human nervous system. On either side of the transition, people were dealing with the very same experiences. It is argued that there is hard material evidence for tiered cosmological beliefs in the late Mesolithic and early Neolithic respectively, although they were manifested in materials and the landscape differently in each period. The introduction of Neolithic technologies, materials, and animals enabled people to express their beliefs in a tiered universe in more diverse and elaborate ways. What we have is a find bias. The limited evidence in the late Mesolithic is understandable, as people were not as caught up in materials as they were in the Neolithic. Their beliefs did not leave as significant a material 2 trace. However, where symbolic expression is present in the late Mesolithic, such beliefs are pronounced. In this way, cosmological beliefs on either side of the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition were the same, and equally as complex.Show less
The estimation of sex is very important in the analysis of skeletal remains in both archaeological and forensic contexts. It is generally the first step that is taken to establish the...Show moreThe estimation of sex is very important in the analysis of skeletal remains in both archaeological and forensic contexts. It is generally the first step that is taken to establish the osteoarchaeological biological profile as the other elements of the profile (e.g. stature and age-at-death) are sex specific. Morphological sex estimation methods require a visual assessment of various features of the pelvis and skull, however, in practice the pelvis and skull are not always assessable when the skeletal elements are in a fragmentary state or are completely absent from the context. Therefore, it is useful to create methods that can be applied to a wider variety of bones and can handle incomplete skeletal elements. Metric methods have shown high accuracy rates on bones like the radius, ulna, femur, calcaneus, and many more. Previous research has shown that the talus is also a sexually dimorphic bone that can be used for sex estimation, however, the discriminant function equations that are created in previous research are population specific. This study extends the line of research done on the talus by testing its sex estimation ability in a post-medieval Dutch population using the Middenbeemster collection. A total of nine measurements were obtained from 111 individuals of known sex (47 males and 64 females). These measurements are based on previous studies and are the talar length, talar width, talar height, trochlear length, trochlear breadth, head-neck length, head height, length of the posterior articular surface, and the breadth of the posterior articular surface. Descriptive statistics and discriminant function analysis was applied to the acquired data. Basic statistics showed the sex discriminating potential of the talus in this Dutch post-medieval population. Univariate analysis reached accuracies between 62.3% and 88.8% while multivariate analysis reached even higher accuracies of between 82.5% and 97.4%. To further investigate the need for population specific equations, the Dutch data has been entered into multiple functions obtained from three previously researched populations. The accuracies obtained here proofed to be less than the accuracies obtained when using their own data suggesting the need for population specific equations. In conclusion, this study has established that the talus of Dutch individuals is effective in sex estimation.Show less
Earth is currently entering the Anthropocene: a human-driven geological epoch that signals the end of the Holocene, the roughly 12,000 year period in which humanity transitioned gradually from the...Show moreEarth is currently entering the Anthropocene: a human-driven geological epoch that signals the end of the Holocene, the roughly 12,000 year period in which humanity transitioned gradually from the subsistence practices of hunter-gatherers to the “conventional” agricultural methods of the twenty- first century. Today, debates surrounding agriculture and food system reform lie at the heart of a worldwide “Decade of Action” on climate change (2020-2030), with approaches based on “sustainable intensification” characterizing the dominant paradigm supported by large-scale agriculture and world governance. In order to provide macrohistorical, “deep-time” perspectives on the suitability of “sustainable intensification” as a food-production strategy for the Anthropocene, this paper juxtaposes the present climate and food crisis with the subsistence transitions that occurred during the last climate epoch shift (Pleistocene-Holocene). As the only other climatic “game-changer” experienced by human societies, this period presents an opportunity to highlight through analogical analysis otherwise non-observable commonalities between how we and our distant ancestors have adapted our subsistence practices to massive climatic shift. On this basis, I argue that many of the recent “revolutionary” advances in agricultural methodology and technology that underpin confidence in sustainable intensification’s success in coming decades and centuries are little more than continuations of strategies developed by Early Holocene cultivators, upon which we have remained reliant. Moreover, because these strategies were developed under and for a specific set of climate conditions which are coming to an end, I question the continued success of these strategies under an Anthropocene climate regime. This leaves us in dire need of novel approaches to food-production. This paper also examines why modern societies are prone to such oversights and offers suggestions for how they can be overcome by incorporating historical macroperspectives into near-term climate decision-making. Finally, I make recommendations for an approach to cultivation based around the concept of syntropy that breaks with the past and offers tangible steps for immediate climate adaptation without the massive costs traditionally associated with de-intensification.Show less
Naar aanleiding van het RCE onderzoek naar de vindplaats Esbeek-Diessen in de gemeente Hilvarenbeek, is er een landschapsreconstructie gemaakt van de periode 60.000 tot 40.000 jaar geleden. In het...Show moreNaar aanleiding van het RCE onderzoek naar de vindplaats Esbeek-Diessen in de gemeente Hilvarenbeek, is er een landschapsreconstructie gemaakt van de periode 60.000 tot 40.000 jaar geleden. In het verleden zijn regelmatig vondsten aangetroffen in de vorm van vuurstenen artefacten in de omgeving door amateurarcheoloog P. van Gisbergen. Door de grote hoeveelheid aan vondsten is het RCE een onderzoek gestart in 2018. Het doel van deze landschapsreconstructie is na te gaan hoe de omgeving in het Midden-Weichselien heeft uitgezien om tot een beter inzicht betreft de omgeving van de Neanderthalers in Nederland. Voor het reconstrueren van het landschap zijn verschillende bronnen geraadplaagd. Ten eerste is er gekeken naar het klimaat. Hierbij is eerst een overzicht beschreven van het klimaat en op later punt is er specifiek aandacht gericht op het Midden-Pleniglaciaal. Hierbij is naar voren gekomen dat het klimaat dat aan het begin van het Midden-Weichselien de temperatuur onder de 10 graden Celsius lag. Gedurende het latere perioden steeg de gemiddelde temperatuur en in het Moershoefd lag varieerde deze tussen de 5 en 13 graden Celsius. Op geologisch gebied ligt Zuid-Nederland in een omgeving met rijke geologische achtergrond. Vanaf het Mioceen ligt Nederland voor groot deel in een gebied bevond die veel beïnvloed werd door rivieren. Met name de komst van de Maas en de Belgische rivieren in de omgeving hebben voor vele fluviatiele afzettingen gezorgd. Aan het einde van het Pleistoceen nemen lokale beken deze rol over met afzettingen die behoren tot de Formatie van Liempde. Dit geeft een beeld dat de vindplaats dat zich een landschap bestond van beken en rivieren in het Weichselien. Deze beken en rivieren stromen van het hooggelegen Kempisch blok naar het lager gelegen Roerdalslenk. De wateren beïnvloedden het landschap in het Weichselien door het afzetten van sediment en het verplaatsen van het sediment. Deze afzettingen behoren tot de Formatie van Boxtel en grotendeels aan het oppervlakte te vinden. Verder van de beken af komen eolische vormen als dekzandruggen en -welvingen op meerdere plekken rond de vindplaats voor. Deze plekken konden ideaal zijn voor de Neanderthaler om zich te vestigen. Op basis van de vegetatie kan worden geconcludeerd dat de planten rond de vindplaats Esbeek-Diessen voornamelijk bestond grassen die in open landschappen leefden. Hierbij bestond de omgeving in het Oerel uit mossen met sporadisch struiken in het landschap. Het landschap was destijds te koud voor de aanwezigheid van vele plantensoorten, waaronder van boomsoorten. Dit bleef het geval tot ongeveer 50.000 BP, het begin van het Glinde, waar langzaam variatie begon te komen in de vegetatie door het iets warmere klimaat. Hier behoren onder andere zeggen en waterranonkel wat aangeeft dat de omstandigheden in het Glinde goed waren voor het ontstaan van meren. Hier en daar kunnen ook bomen worden aangetroffen. In het Moershoofd kwamen er weer andere soorten als de waterranonkel bij die impliceren dat ook in deze periode sprake was van moerassen. Onder andere de vindplaats in Tilburg beschrijft dit fenomeen. Het was echter nog een zeer koude omgeving met op enkele plekken dennenbomen wat een goede omschrijving voor een struiksteppetoendraklimaat. In Zuid-Nederland zijn op meerdere plekken dierlijke resten gevonden die uit het Pleniglaciaal komen. Van deze vindplaatsen is waargenomen dat voornamelijk dieren tegen de kou kunnen zich in Nederland bevonden. Dieren die regelmatig terug worden gevonden zijn de wolharige mammoet en neushoorn, het rendier, het reuzenhert en carnivoren zoals de grottenleeuw en -hyena. In de koude stadialen zouden hoogstwaarschijnlijk alleen de muskusos, rendier, de poolvos en de halsbandlemming in deze contreien hebben kunnen overleven. Het Midden-Pleniglaciaal werd vanaf Oerel interstadiaal, steeds warmer waardoor ook in de stadialen mammoeten, reuzenhert en grottenhyena’s in de omgeving aanwezig waren, zoals te zien aan de datering van de mammoet. Dit is ook goed te zien aan de vindplaats Holt und Haar waar in het Moershoofd (46.250-43.500 BP) vele diersoorten aanwezig waren. De soortgelijke omgeving en dieren maken het aannemelijk dat ook in dit onderzoeksgebied een vergelijkbaar beeld kan worden geschetst. Hierbij kan worden aangenomen dat door de ligging van het onderzoeksgebied in een beekdal hier ook een beken aanwezig waren in het Midden-Pleniglaciaal. Deze lage gebieden bestond uit de water minnende dieren zoals de kolgans en watermol. Aan de oevers leefden de bunzing en de woelrat. Op de hogere delen leefden de wolharige mammoet en neushoorn en halsbandlemming. Aan de hand van de voorgaande informatie kan worden geconcludeerd dat er aan het begin van de onderzoeksperiode sprake was van een steppetoendra waar dieren als de muskusos en het rendier leefde. In het Glinde deden dieren als de wolharige mammoet weer hun intrede en kwamen waterbronnen in het landschap wat zorgde voor meer variatie in vegetatie. Dit zette zich verder voort in het Moershoofd interstadiaal waar een verscheidenheid aan planten in Zuid-Nederland aanwezig waren. Dit trok de aandacht van onder andere het reuzenhert en het edelhert die werden opgevolgd door carnivoren in een struiksteppetoendra.Show less
This thesis presents a case for how small island communities can utilise the heritage of piracy through cultural tourism initiatives to improve their socio-economic quality of life and their...Show moreThis thesis presents a case for how small island communities can utilise the heritage of piracy through cultural tourism initiatives to improve their socio-economic quality of life and their cultural heritage management in a mutually beneficial and sustainable manner. This hypothesis has been supported with comparative evidence from the disciplines of cultural heritage management and tourism management. It has been argued through a case study from the Islands of Providence and Santa Catalina. The result is the production of a preliminary cultural tourism development plan designed around the heritage of piracy specifically for the Islands of Providence and Santa Catalina with the aim to benefit the local community. This thesis therefore brings together archaeological theory, methodology and research to assist the public of these and other island communities in addressing societal problems and issues as is the definition of Applied Archaeology.Show less
