Establishing age-at-death is important to forensic and biological anthropologists for identification and demographic analyses, but some degree of error is unavoidable. In human osteoarchaeology,...Show moreEstablishing age-at-death is important to forensic and biological anthropologists for identification and demographic analyses, but some degree of error is unavoidable. In human osteoarchaeology, there is a general assumption that there is worse preservation with increasing age of adult skeletal remains resulting in inaccuracies in paleodemographic reconstructions. This thesis examines skeletal material from the 17th to 19th-century Middenbeemster cemetery in the Netherlands to understand taphonomic processes that cause age and sex biases in the preservation of the adult pelvic girdle. Skeletal age estimation techniques have focused on the iliac auricular surface and pubic symphysis. However, the morphological features that are considered for age estimation methods of the pubic symphyseal surface, iliac auricular surface, and sacrum get destroyed or damaged to the point where the morphological features are no longer or only partially observable, which, in turn, affects the accuracy of these age estimation methods. The degeneration pattern in human remains from individuals aged 50 years and older becomes too unclear to put into smaller age groups, which is further complicated by taphonomic factors. Differences in bone preservation are caused by several taphonomic processes that affect the pelvic girdle of old adults more than young and middle aged adults. The general results show that the pelvic girdle of old adults is less well-preserved than young and middle adults, and that adult female pelvises are less complete than males. This research supports the view that age biases in preservation are more important than sex biases.Show less
This thesis examines human mobility and population interactions at the Post-Archaic (fifth to fourth century BCE) site of Satricum, Lazio (Italy). According to Livy, the Volscians moved from the...Show moreThis thesis examines human mobility and population interactions at the Post-Archaic (fifth to fourth century BCE) site of Satricum, Lazio (Italy). According to Livy, the Volscians moved from the mountainous hinterland into the Latial plain, around the beginning of the fifth century BCE, took over the Latin town of Satricum in 488 BCE, and were defeated by the Romans in 385 BCE. Based on these ancient sources and archaeological fieldwork, scholars propose a cultural shift in Satricum caused by this Volscian migration-event. Therefore, strontium isotope analysis (87Sr/86Sr) is used to assess human mobility from the enamel of third molars (M3). Beside chemical research, nonmetric dental traits are used to examine the nature of biological affinities and phenetic divergence within the Satricum population and between Satricum and other ancient Italian sites. Nineteen human enamel samples, and a modern snail shell as a reference sample, from three presumable ‘Volscian’ necropoleis in Satricum, are analyzed. The isotopic results of this study yield only one outlier. However, all 87Sr/86Sr signatures, including the outlier, still fall within the expected radiogenic range for the Roman magmatic province in which Satricum is located. All individuals can thus be identified as locals. Assessment of the correlation of 87Sr/86Sr signatures with demographic variables, archaeological features, and post-mortem influences, is attempted but provides no statistically significant results. Future research which includes more samples from Satricum and from the hinterland could provide more insights and more reliable results for comparison. In addition, the combination of a complementary oxygen isotope analysis to the present analysis will increase the potential of identifying nonlocal individuals. Nonmetric trait analysis of two necropoleis, with 22 and 17 individuals, provides insight into the nature of biological population similarity and divergence in Satricum. The analysis shows that the Satricum population differs significantly from other contemporary central Italian populations, although this is probably due to the use of data sets on different scales. In addition, the two necropoleis showed high phenetic dissimilarity, likely indicating two different gene pools were present in Satricum. The dental nonmetric traits show that two different populations lived in Satricum during a relatively small time frame (ca. 150 years). Future research will be needed to sort out which populations these were. For example, the assessment of dental nonmetric traits of more inland sites, where whence the Volscians originated, could provide more insights. At an individual level, no evidence for ancient mobility is found in Satricum. However, this research suggests that different biological populations did interact during the Post-Archaic period in Satricum.Show less
There are two main issues that pose a problem with inferring health from the skeletons of past populations. Selective mortality refers to the fact that we can only research individuals who died and...Show moreThere are two main issues that pose a problem with inferring health from the skeletons of past populations. Selective mortality refers to the fact that we can only research individuals who died and that they might not be representative of all individuals that existed at that age. Heterogeneity in frailty refers to the possibility that not all individuals are equal in terms of their risk of getting sick or dying and the factors that contribute to this difference might be hidden. This study addresses these two problems by looking at tooth crown sizes between individuals who died in childhood versus adulthood, as well as looking at the tooth crown sizes between teeth that show signs of physiological stress (enamel hypoplasia) and teeth that do not. Teeth might turn out smaller than their maximum genetic potential under developmental stress. It is researched if this same developmental stress caused individuals to be frailer than their peers, which might be reflected in reduced longevity and vulnerability to physiological stress episodes. The mesiodistal and buccolingual tooth crown sizes are measured for the entire dentition of 115 individuals between seven and 50+ years of age from the predominately 19th century Middenbeemster cemetery (the Netherlands). The results show that four buccolingual tooth crown dimensions (maxillary first molar, mandibular canine, first premolar and second molar) were significantly smaller for subadults than for adults, with all buccolingual dimensions having a tendency to be at least a bit smaller. For three of these dimensions, the significantly reduced tooth crown size is wholly attributed to the juveniles having smaller tooth crowns. Six dimensions of four teeth (maxillary second premolar and first molar, mandibular second premolar and first molar) were significantly smaller for teeth with and without enamel hypoplasia. These results indicate that increased frailty, which is reflected in a reduced tooth crown size, does affect mortality, more so for the juveniles than for adolescents. Besides a higher mortality risk, a higher risk of undergoing physiological stressors during early childhood, reflected in enamel hypoplasia presence, is also shown for individuals with reduced tooth crown sizes. Enamel hypoplasia lesions, thus, more likely reflect a weaker individual rather than a stronger individual. This study shows that selective mortality and hidden heterogeneity in frailty are issues that need to be considered in reconstructions of the health of past populations, however teeth are an excellent means to compare circumstances during the period of growth between survivors and non-survivors and to identify if these might account for the differences in longevity.Show less
The process of urbanisation was important during the Late Middle Ages in Europe. Traditionally, the rise of urban centres has been associated with unhealthier living conditions, compared to the...Show moreThe process of urbanisation was important during the Late Middle Ages in Europe. Traditionally, the rise of urban centres has been associated with unhealthier living conditions, compared to the countryside. However, this so-called ‘urban graveyard effect´ has been challenged by more recent historical and osteological research. Particularly, osteoarchaeologists have assessed the possible difference in living conditions between urban and rural areas through physiological stress markers, such as linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH). In the Netherlands, up to date, a specific and detailed osteoarchaeological analysis of the effect of urbanisation in children has not been done. To address this question, this thesis has studied the individuals from the Late Medieval urban centre of Alkmaar and rural village of Klaaskinderkerke, focusing on the prevalence, number of episodes, and age distribution of LEH in canines. The results show a lack of difference between Alkmaar and Klaaskinderkerke. High levels of prevalence and number of episodes are present in both populations; in addition, the defects followed a similar age distribution. Therefore, as historical sources also point out, these socioeconomic changes did not only affect the city but also the countryside. In the Netherlands, both spaces changed during the Late Middle Ages, and both had great importance in the rising Dutch economy. The high levels of physiological stress in the city and the countryside support the idea that this Dutch economic development did not mean an improvement in living conditions for people. In summary, living in the countryside was as physiologically stressful as living in the city.Show less
This study examines a subadult skeletal sample from the period of AD 1500-1850, excavated from the St. Catherine’s church cemetery in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The study’s main research question...Show moreThis study examines a subadult skeletal sample from the period of AD 1500-1850, excavated from the St. Catherine’s church cemetery in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The study’s main research question is whether signs of physiological stress are visible in the subadult remains in Eindhoven, and what these signs may tell us about the health of the population during the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. The following nonspecific stress markers are examined: dental enamel hypoplasia, Harris lines, cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, and the cortical index of the humerus and tibia. It is assessed whether and how stress factors relate to each other, as well as whether a difference exists between the two time periods examined (1600-1650 AD, and 1650-1850 AD). For all stress markers, it is also examined whether or not a difference in prevalence per age or per sex (based on ancient DNA results) is present. None of the stress marker prevalences differed significantly between the sexes. There were also no significant differences between the two examined periods, which suggests sociocultural changes between these periods did not affect stress patterns. Infants are mostly unaffected by stress markers. For the Eindhoven population, the age within childhood at which signs of stress first seem to occur is around three to four years. However, it is possible that stress is best visible in this age group, and not necessarily that this age group is more susceptible to stress than others. Overall, most stress markers show a moderate to high prevalence in Eindhoven. Only the prevalence of porotic hyperostosis is quite low. The fact that many individuals showed signs of cribra orbitalia but not of porotic hyperostosis, implies that they either have a different etiology, or that porotic hyperostosis develops in later stages than cribra orbitalia. The correlation between stress markers was different than expected; if all reflect physiological stress then one might expect the stress markers to be strongly correlated. However, only the presence of dental enamel hypoplasia and Harris lines were correlated, yet the lines themselves do not correlate, making it unlikely that they are indicative of the same stress event. The reason that stress markers are not correlated could be due to their different etiologies or different age-related propensities to form, or because one, or several, of the stress markers do not in fact reflect physiological stress. The cortical index pattern of individuals with Harris lines may imply that Harris line formation is in fact a normal part of bone growth. The high prevalence of most stress markers suggests that the population suffered from stress caused by malnourishment or disease, and the presence of these stress markers also indicates survivorship. More research is needed to better understand the health of the population of Eindhoven. Additionally, this research has show that much is still unknown about the relationships between the different stress markers.Show less
In this thesis, the size and shape differences between male and female zygomatic bones and zygomatic arches are examined in order to better understand and improve the macroscopic sex estimation...Show moreIn this thesis, the size and shape differences between male and female zygomatic bones and zygomatic arches are examined in order to better understand and improve the macroscopic sex estimation methods that are currently used for these regions. These regions are used in macroscopic osteological methods of sex estimation but the exact nature of the differences is poorly understood: Is it a difference in shape, in size, or both, and where are the differences located exactly? In osteological methods, it is thought that the male zygomatic is more square in shape with a larger marginal tubercle than in females. For the zygomatic arch, the male arch is said to be thicker than that of females. For the orbit, the male orbit is purportedly more square and the female orbit more round. This thesis uses three dimensional (3D) models and geometric morphometrics to investigate sexual dimorphism of the zygomatic and zygomatic arch. Geometric morphometrics is a method that uses images, in this case 3D scans of crania. On the images, landmarks are indicated. Four sets of landmarks are examined in this thesis: All landmarks together, landmarks on the zygomatic, landmarks on the zygomatic arch, and landmarks on the orbits. These landmarks are then analyzed with a general procrustes analysis, which removes rotation, location, and size. This means that only shape remains. Two different principal component analyses (PCA) follow. The first is a normal PCA, while the second includes size to examine the form (shape with size). Differences are looked for in size, shape, and form. Because shape can change with size (allometry) the occurrence of this is also examined. The material that is analyzed is 65 crania (29 females and 36 males) from the Middenbeemster cemetery in the Netherlands, mostly from the 19th century. The results show differences between males and females in size and in form, but no clear difference in shape. Allometry is present in the zygomatic, the zygomatic arch, and orbits, but only in the orbits does allometry explain more than 10% of the change in shape. The allometry in the orbits corresponds to the differences noted by the macroscopic method mentioned above. All the differences between males and females come from a difference in size. Only for the zygomatic arch, does form work better than size in differentiating the sexes. Differences in shape do not clearly differentiate between males and females. The accuracy for the size differences for all the landmarks and the zygomatic are both 83%. The form of the zygomatic arch also has an accuracy of 83%. This thesis has contributed to our knowledge about the location of differences between males and females for the zygomatic bone, zygomatic arch and orbits. The differences are mainly in size, and for the zygomatic arch in both size and shape (form). With this knowledge we can improve upon the macroscopic methods for sex estimation.Show less
Deciduous dentition can provide valuable insight into the life of an individual during early childhood; information that is usually lost as deciduous teeth are replaced by the permanent dentition....Show moreDeciduous dentition can provide valuable insight into the life of an individual during early childhood; information that is usually lost as deciduous teeth are replaced by the permanent dentition. The purpose of this thesis is the application of micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) to assess the enamel thickness and density distribution of a sample of deciduous canines and first molars from the Middenbeemster site, an 18th – 19th century, non-industrial, rural society in the Netherlands. The main objectives are to assess trends and correlations between enamel properties (thickness and density) and dental disease and wear, as well as investigating sexual dimorphism in a known-sex subsample. The sample consists of 38 individuals who are macroscopically evaluated to determine the presence of dental disease and extent of dental wear. The latter was conducted using a modified method for dental wear scoring, involving an average score for the entire dentition. A strong correlation (R2 = 0.6715) between age and dental wear score was identified, building upon previous studies showing a positive correlation between age and dental wear, and provides initial insights into the benefits of developing a novel method for subadult age-estimation. Of the 38 individuals in the sample, 35, represented by 33 deciduous canines and 30 deciduous first molars, were scanned and analysed using fixed-point measurements and threshold-based 3D evaluation with an integrated micro-CT software. The enamel thickness within the sample ranged between 0.38 mm and 0.66 mm, while the enamel density ranged between 1914 and 2173 mgHA/ccm. No significant differences (p > 0.05) were found to indicate that enamel thickness and density play a significant role in the progression of dental wear or the presence and/or rate of dental disease. Enamel hypomineralisation and hypoplasia were identified; however, the impact of these on the overall enamel thickness and density distribution was seemingly limited. Archival data provided known-sex for 20 individuals (13 females, 7 males). This study investigated this small subsample of known-sex individuals focusing on the two key variables, enamel thickness and density. No significant differences were found in the statistical comparison of means, and the applied logit model failed to show sufficient discriminatory ability. The results of the analysis were considered in conjunction with confounding factors involving the use of skeletal samples to make population inferences, and the current limitations of micro-CT technology. Overall, this study represents an exploratory investigation into various enamel properties of an archaeological population, adding to the still under-represented data acquired from deciduous dentition, and emphasises the benefits and contributions of micro-CT to human osteoarchaeology research.Show less
The occurrence and aetiology of congenitally absent third molars is widely researched in modern human populations. Previous research on third molar agenesis has, however, seldom been conducted on...Show moreThe occurrence and aetiology of congenitally absent third molars is widely researched in modern human populations. Previous research on third molar agenesis has, however, seldom been conducted on medieval populations, and archaeological research on other time periods has focussed on either agenesis patterns, prevalence within a population, or relations to dental wear. Osteoarchaeology can contribute to understanding third molar agenesis in a way that exceeds temporal and geographical boundaries, and therefore it can contribute to unravelling different aetiological contributors of third molar agenesis. This research is about third molar agenesis in the Late Medieval Dutch skeletal collections of Klaaskinderkerke (rural) and Alkmaar (urban) in order to gain insight into congenitally absent third molars during the Dutch Late Medieval period. To enhance knowledge about third molar agenesis, this study conducts prevalence and metric analyses of the jaws in relation to third molar agenesis patterns. The main question is ‘Do sex, size and robustness of the mandible and the maxilla, and the place in the jaw (mandible versus maxilla), relate to the agenesis, impaction, or presence of the third molar in a Late Medieval Dutch sample?’ To answer the research questions, 19 mandibular and 9 maxillary measurements are used to quantify size and robustness. Radiological examination is used to differentiate between third molar agenesis and impaction. Statistical analyses explore the relationships between category and metric variables and third molar agenesis. The results show that impaction of the third molar was not present in the two late medieval sites. The frequency of third molar agenesis is insignificantly higher for females (36.8%) than for males (29.4%). Congenitally absent third molars are insignificantly more often observed in the mandibles than in the maxillae (29.7% versus 25.0%). Congenitally absent third molars were observed significantly more frequently in the Alkmaar collection (46.5%) than in the Klaaskinderkerke (25.5%) sample. These differences may be related to differences in environment, genetic variation, or ways of living. The socioeconomic background is similar for both sites, and should not be a contributing factor. The statistical results indicate that third molar agenesis is to some extent related to size and robustness of the jaws, but only a few measurements correlate with agenesis. All correlating measurements differ between males and females, except for Body Height. The contribution of the current study to understanding the development of third molar agenesis is that it provides osteoarchaeological data on a (sex specific) relationship between size and robustness of the jaws and third molar agenesis in the Dutch Middle Ages.Show less
The estimation of sex is a vital step in the osteological analysis of adult human remains. The methods available for this purpose generally rely on the presence of a well-preserved pelvis or...Show moreThe estimation of sex is a vital step in the osteological analysis of adult human remains. The methods available for this purpose generally rely on the presence of a well-preserved pelvis or cranium. However, these bones are not always available. Other skeletal elements have successfully been used for this purpose. In this thesis, the sexual dimorphism of the proximal femur in a post-medieval Dutch population is assessed using seven different measurements: femoral neck width (FNW), femoral neck axis length (FNAL), trochanter-diaphysis distance (TD), greater-lesser trochanter distance (TT), greater trochanter width (TW), trochanter-head distance (TH) and the vertical head diameter (VHD). The sample, from the predominately 19th century Middenbeemster site in the Netherlands, consists of 68 individuals and includes 50 individuals with known-sex and known age-at-death. Additional to the assessment of sexual dimorphism, a sex estimation method was chosen and tested for accuracy. The C5.0 algorithm was used to generate a decision tree predicting sex. The results show that all measurements studied are sexually dimorphic and are easily reproduced with low intra- and interobserver error. Furthermore, left and right do not differ significantly. An unexpected result is that age had a statistical correlation with measurement size. This is a topic that needs further research. Lastly, the sex estimation method did not yield sufficiently accurate results (62.4% accuracy) but a newly generated decision tree gained a better sex allocation accuracy of 85%. To conclude, this thesis supports that the sexual dimorphism of the femur is valuable for sex estimation of adult skeletal remains, especially when more sexually dimorphic elements of the skeleton are not accessible for analysis.Show less
Scholars have proposed a migration-event into Satricum from the mountainous hinterland, Central Italy, around 500 BC. This proposal is based on historical texts that mention that Satricum became...Show moreScholars have proposed a migration-event into Satricum from the mountainous hinterland, Central Italy, around 500 BC. This proposal is based on historical texts that mention that Satricum became Volscian in 488 BC, and a (probably contemporary) cultural shift within the archaelogical record of Satricum. This thesis performed stable oxygen isotope (δ18O) analysis of the enamel of 44 human molars that derived from three cemeteries of Satricum to assess the likelihood of such a migration for these individuals. The enamel mostly reflects the δ18O of drinking water during tooth formation, which is dependent on the local environmental context. Modern precipitation data are used to determine the expected δ18O ranges of areas of interest, and it is concluded that the hinterland is more 18O depleted than Satricum. Two samples are possibly contaminated and were excluded from further analysis. The remaining 42 samples are normally distributed with a δ18O mean of -3.8‰ and a range of 2.3‰. The broadness of the δ18O range is thought to be due to intra-population variability, caused by precipitation fluctuation, dietary differences, and differences in in-body fractionation processes. The most straightforward interpretation of the data is that all people derive from a local origin. However, because there is some overlap in δ18O ranges with the hinterland, it is also possible that some individuals derived from this area, or another region with a similar δ18O range. Assessment of δ18O correlation with archaeological features and demographic variables revealed no statistical significant correlations with sex, age, spatial distribution, the presence or absence of loculi, corner pits, or roof-tile cover. It is noted that the graves with and without ledges differ significantly, and a trend is recognised in an increase in the amount of burial gifts with an increase in δ18O. However, these possible correlations are based on a small number of samples and thus are highly speculative. Therefore, it is proposed to analyse more of Satricum’s individuals and reference materials from the hinterland to conduct a more reliable assessment. A complementary strontium isotope analysis will be joined with the results of this analysis, which will enhance the potential to identify non-local individuals. Other methods to enhance such identification are (non-)metric dental traits analyses or (mt)DNA analysis to examine genetic distance. Factors that could be causing diagenesis that could affect δ18O values should also be studied.Show less
Analysing trabecular bone morphology to interpret the behaviour of past populations has become more popular these last few years. Due to its non-destructive method of collecting data, microCT has...Show moreAnalysing trabecular bone morphology to interpret the behaviour of past populations has become more popular these last few years. Due to its non-destructive method of collecting data, microCT has been widely used in the field of palaeoanthropology in an effort to study the locomotion of extant and extinct primates, fossil hominins and past populations of modern humans. One problem with these studies is that they all rely on the assumption that adult trabecular bone morphology accurately reflects changes in mechanical loading during life. Ontogenetic studies of the human os coxae have indicated that this may not be the case. This study attempts to remedy this issue by investigating the ontogenetic trajectory of trabecular bone development in the talus of a modern human population from the 19th Century Netherlands. Trabecular bone variables such as bone volume ratio, connectivity density, trabecular number, thickness and degree of anisotropy of the talus were recorded using microCT for 55 individuals aged between 3 weeks and 50+ years and compared across age groups. Results show that talar trabecular morphology reflects mechanical loading during life and that abrupt changes in variables such as connectivity density and bone volume ratio can be used to identify the onset of independent walking in human infants.Show less
When the body endures physiological stress during childhood it will react by disrupting the growth of skeletal elements. By doing so, the body will be able to utilize nutrients for survival rather...Show moreWhen the body endures physiological stress during childhood it will react by disrupting the growth of skeletal elements. By doing so, the body will be able to utilize nutrients for survival rather than putting energy towards growth. When a physiological disruption leaves a permanent mark on the skeleton or dentition it is called a non-specific indicator of stress. A small vertebral neural canal is one such non-specific indicator of stress. The vertebral neural canal is the hole in each vertebra through which the spinal cord passes. A small vertebral neural canal is an indicator of physiological stress during childhood. This thesis examines the relationship between physiological stress and urbanization by studying the vertebral neural canal size. Adults from St Mary Graces, a medieval skeletal collection with a mixed socioeconomic status, and St Bride’s Lower, a post-medieval collection with a low to middle class socioeconomic status, were analyzed for this study. Both archaeological sites are located in London, England, which was already an urban settlement during medieval times, but became even more urbanized during the post-medieval period. Measurements of the inner and outer diameter of the vertebral neural canal were taken. Statistical analysis was used to determine whether there were any differences in vertebral neural canal size between the two archaeological sites. The data was also used to establish whether there were any differences in vertebral neural canal size between sexes and age groups. Results show that the physiological stress did not increase with increased urbanization in the St Bride’s Lower sample and that males benefited more from the further urbanization of London than the females. The study also showed that only the inner diameter, and not the outer diameter, provided information on physiological stress. Overall, this study has further defined the possibilities and limitations of using the vertebral neural canal diameter as an indicator of stress and increased our understanding of the impact of urbanization on physiological stress.Show less
Congenital syphilis is a disease which still affects thousands of people throughout the world in a modern society. If untreated, congenital syphilis can be extremely debilitating and can even cause...Show moreCongenital syphilis is a disease which still affects thousands of people throughout the world in a modern society. If untreated, congenital syphilis can be extremely debilitating and can even cause death. Although the cure for congenital syphilis is relatively simple with modern medicine, this was not always the case. Congenital syphilis was responsible for thousands of deaths in the past, yet this is not visible in the archaeological record. There are several reasons why the true prevalence rate of congenital syphilis is not visible in the archaeological record such as, the common underrepresentation of juvenile skeletal remains. it is however possible that some potential cases of congenital syphilis are being misdiagnosed in the archaeological record because of the confusion surrounding the diagnostic criteria. By improving the diagnostic criteria of congenital syphilis, new archaeological cases may become evident.Show less
The mandible is one of the many structures of the human skeleton that can be characterized by large amounts of inter(between)-individual morphological variation. The primary aim of this thesis is...Show moreThe mandible is one of the many structures of the human skeleton that can be characterized by large amounts of inter(between)-individual morphological variation. The primary aim of this thesis is to provide the one of the first large-scale systematic investigations upon which the relationship between mandibular morphological variation and speech production capabilities and language change can be explored, a subject that has seen little previous research. In order to accurately capture the shape and size of the human mandible, three-dimensional geometric morphometrics are used on adults (18-49 years of age) from two Dutch archaeological sites: Alkmaar (AD 1484-1574, n= 37) and Middenbeemster (AD 1829-1866, n= 51). The results indicate that there is a large amount of overlap of shape variation between individuals and that the variation within the groups is quite large compared to the variation between groups. Overall, the mandibles belonging to individuals from Alkmaar are significantly larger while mandibles from Middenbeemster are smaller on average. The average male mandible from Alkmaar has a superiorly-posteriorly shifted anterior portion of the corpus. The male individuals from Middenbeemster show less antero-posterior curvature in the anterior part of the corpus and slightly more projecting chins. The females show no significant differences between the sites. Moreover, the sample from Middenbeemster shows sexual dimorphism which is dominated by differences in size. The differences are mainly located in the corpus and probably caused by dissimilarities in the mandibular symphysis in terms of robusticity. For the individuals from Alkmaar, there is no significant dimorphism in the shape captured by the landmarks presented here, except at the ramus, and specifically at the gonial angles. Therefore, the expression of sexual dimorphism shifts between these sites. These results are probably linked to the general softening of the diet that occurred between these time-periods due to processing improvements and different dietary components due to the Industrial Revolution, but more research on this subject is needed. This thesis contributes to our understanding of shape variation and sexual dimorphism in the mandible. It has shown that sexual dimorphism has changed over a small period of time in a geographical area in North Holland and represents the first time that three-dimensional geometric morphometrics have been applied to human skeletal remains in the Netherlands. It also provides one of the first steps upon which researchers can begin to investigate the potential role of mandibular morphology on variation in language and speech production. While unsuccessful in finding a direct correlation between language and mandibular morphology, this thesis demonstrates the complexity of this issue as it appears difficult to separate the effect of language from other, more prominent factors such as diet, mastication and tooth status. These factors need to be overcome before future research can tackle questions regarding language change and its relationship with mandibular morphology. Thus, this thesis will serve as one of the stepping stones that can be used to perform cutting-edge research on this complex but interesting subject.Show less
This study concerns the Christian cemetery surrounding the Romanesque and earliest Gothic churches in the village of Reusel. This cemetery dating to the 10th to 14th centuries was almost completely...Show moreThis study concerns the Christian cemetery surrounding the Romanesque and earliest Gothic churches in the village of Reusel. This cemetery dating to the 10th to 14th centuries was almost completely excavated. The aim of this study is twofold: to determine the composition of the sample of excavated graves, and to assess patterns in the ways the individuals were buried. In particular, it was examined if differentiation in grave morphologies and distribution could be related to social differences. In order to do this, different grave morphologies, the orientation of the graves and their location, and the skeletons from the graves were examined. Furthermore, characteristics were compared to each other to see if patterns emerged. The composition of the sample suggests that most adult community members were buried at the Reusel cemetery. Most children however, and especially the infants, may not have been buried within the cemetery grounds. The ones that were, were all buried in the eastern part of the cemetery, except for one infant that was buried together with an adult. Males were slightly overrepresented in the sample, but this is likely to be due to sample size. Remarkably, intramural burial was rare. Burial took place on all sides of the successive churches, but particularly directly to the east of it. Different grave morphologies appeared all over the cemetery, apart from the ladder coffin, which was restricted to the eastern part of the churchyard. This type of coffin may be related to a specific status of the deceased be it in terms of wealth or piety. Furthermore, as far as could be determined, only males were buried in such coffins. Other observed grave morphologies include anthropomorphic graves, log coffins, coffins with and without protrusions and containers of unknown type. Coffins with and without nails were encountered, a difference that could be attributed to different periods. Most graves were oriented roughly from east to west, except three graves that were oriented west to east. Within the Christian tradition, such burials are often interpreted as priests, but the fact that at least one of these individuals was a woman, suggests traditions in Reusel may have been deviant. This study sheds more light on burial practices during the Central and Late Middle Ages. It shows that in the Reusel community, some practices were in accordance with those in other medieval communities, although others were clearly different. It confirms the existence of local variation in burial practices in this period. Apparently, people from local communities could, to a certain extent, give their own interpretation to Christian rituals. In future cemetery studies, such local variations have to be taken into account. Future research in these areas will help to acquire a better picture of medieval burial ritual and its social meaning in the southern Netherlands. This study is under embargo because the author prepares a more comprehensive report on this exceptional site.Show less
The aim of this research is to reconstruct the diets of people interred in the early medieval cemetery of Blokhuizen, and the late medieval cemetery of the Paardenmarkt, in Holland. In order to...Show moreThe aim of this research is to reconstruct the diets of people interred in the early medieval cemetery of Blokhuizen, and the late medieval cemetery of the Paardenmarkt, in Holland. In order to accomplish this, 50 human and 19 animal bone samples were analyzed for the stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen in “collagen”. Two “collagen” isolation methods were applied and a comparison of extraction methods is included in the research. The analysis of stable isotope ratios, and comparison of the reconstructed diets from Blokhuizen and Alkmaar, provide the opportunity to evaluate interpopulation and intrapopulational dietary differences. The goal was to assess general trends in the composition of diet over time, and whether there were differences in diet between the sexes. Ultimately, it was attempted to evaluate to what extent an urban way of life, commercialisation, and changes in subsistence practices impacted diet in medieval Holland. It was established that both populations subsisted on a C3-based diet, with mainly terrestrial protein. Significant dietary differences were found between Blokhuizen and Alkmaar. The population of Alkmaar showed significantly enriched δ15N ratios and had more variable δ13C ratios. This is interpreted as an increase in the consumption of meat and/or marine or freshwater foods in the late medieval diet. There was no significant difference between the sexes in the Blokhuizen sample, whereas a significant difference was found between men and women from Alkmaar: men had significantly enriched in δ15N ratios compared to women. Both male and female diet changed significantly through time as evidenced by higher δ15N ratios, but the δ15N enrichment was higher in the males suggesting they consumed comparatively more animal protein. These data suggest that social differences between males and females changed through time, resulting in dietary differences detectable in stable isotope ratios of human bone “collagen”.Show less
Population genetics during the medieval to modern period of Europe remain underresearched by bioarchaeologists, as do issues of social identity such as gender and ethnicity in this historical...Show morePopulation genetics during the medieval to modern period of Europe remain underresearched by bioarchaeologists, as do issues of social identity such as gender and ethnicity in this historical context. This thesis investigates changes in female population structure and continuity between the 14th century AD and the modern era at two Dutch sites, Vlissingen and Oldenzaal, using ancient mitochondrial DNA. Ancient DNA samples extracted from human teeth taken from excavations spanning two main periods, the late medieval and the early modern period, were compared with modern population samples from the same areas. Population continuity modelling and statistics were used to explore patterns of population structure, migration, and population replacement, that have occurred over these periods. Mitochondrial DNA, which is passed down exclusively through the female line, has the unique advantage of allowing archaeologists to examine the movement of just the females in the study population. This thesis therefore builds on previous work on Y chromosomal DNA used to study the male line at these sites, to examine gender-specific differences in historical population movements. The two sites chosen have a very different historical character, which also allowed questions to be raised about European genetic histories in more urban or rural environments. Since Vlissingen was a key centre of international trade over the study period, particularly the Atlantic slave trade, the presence of ‘exotic’ or non-European haplogroups also formed an interesting line of enquiry. The results of this study concluded that population continuity could be confirmed in all cases except at Vlissingen between the medieval and modern period, where replacement of the original female population has occurred gradually over the entire period of study. It is hypothesized that this may represent the increasing movement of women into urban centres due to the greater opportunities for them in these areas. Surprisingly, the presence of African haplogroups could not be confirmed at Vlissingen, raising questions about the extent of non-European and slave integration in European societies from the medieval period onwards. However, there appears to have been migration at both sites from other areas of Europe, and possibly the Near East at Vlissingen. It is concluded that urbanization in western Europe between the medieval and modern period may have had a significant effect on female population structure, in the form of migrations by women into these areas in search of opportunities, whilst in more rural areas population structure may have remained more stable.Show less
After years of research the etiology of Harris lines (abbreviated as HLs) is still a matter of much discussion. Multiple scholars agree on HLs being an indicator of psychological stress (González...Show moreAfter years of research the etiology of Harris lines (abbreviated as HLs) is still a matter of much discussion. Multiple scholars agree on HLs being an indicator of psychological stress (González-Reimers et al. 2007; Macchiarelli et al. 1994; White 2005). However, recent research that could not directly associate HLs with other stress indicators, such as linear enamel hypoplasia and hypothyroidism, suggested that HLs are not good indicators of periods of nutritional stress or disease (Papageorgopoulou 2011). Thus, there is still a lot of discussion concerning the etiology of HLs (Alfonso-Durruty 2011; Ameen et al. 2005; Hughes et al. 1996; Nowak and Pointek 2002; Ribot and Roberts 1996). The focus of this thesis is the occurrence of HLs in the distal tibiae of skeletons from the Early Medieval cemetery of the Paardenmarkt (i.e. horse market) in the Dutch city of Alkmaar. HLs are compared to another stress marker namely, linear enamel hypoplasia (abbreviated as LEH). This stress marker forms in the teeth, and comparison is made in order to assess their concordance with HLs. These markers are compared, with the assumption that the late Medieval population of Alkmaar was affected by physiological stress experiences, such as malnutrition and illness during a time of marked social, political and economic change. The results show that there are some links to be found between LEHs and HLs, mainly the younger individuals show more stress events. In addition, the age-at-line formation times show an overlap, five individuals have stress events in there dentition and bones during at the same time. A possible explanation of HLs in the Alkmaar population is malaria; the high number of cribra orbitalia in the Paardenmarkt collection in combination with this high number of stress events could be caused by this parasitic disease. But, due to the small dataset(55 tibia belonging to 33 individuals) it is difficult to make strong statistical statements.Show less
