The Roman army in Egypt is not much presented in the archaeology. The study of ancient Egypt is mainly done by Egyptologists who are more concerned with the Pharaonic era than the Roman era....Show moreThe Roman army in Egypt is not much presented in the archaeology. The study of ancient Egypt is mainly done by Egyptologists who are more concerned with the Pharaonic era than the Roman era. Furthermore the history of research in Egypt is mostly about the papyri that are found. The papyri of Egypt are a major source for our knowledge of the Roman army. This phenomenon produces problems when it comes to the archaeology of Roman Egypt. However in this thesis I try to focus on the known archaeological sites in Egypt which can tell something about the Roman military presence and its function. The popularity of Pharaonic Egypt is fairly reasonable because it was a long prosperous period for Egypt. The Egyptian pharaohs ruled approximately from 3000 B.C. till the Persian conquest in the seventh century B.C.1 which is long compared to the Roman occupation which lasted roughly 300 years when Byzantine rule is not counted. This different approach to the history of Egypt is clearly seen in books which introduce the reader or give an overview of ancient Egypt, for example An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt by Katherine Bard.2 Only one chapter is about the Roman rule. The length of the Pharaonic period demands this but it steals a lot of focus from the Roman period. Strangely enough because of the papyri, which only survive in Egypt, there is a lot of knowledge about the Roman army. R.O. Fink describes many aspects of the Roman army in Roman Military Records on Papyrus published in 1971.3 More recent books describe the Roman army in a historical sense. However in this thesis I want to focus on the archaeological side of the Roman army and compare its function to other provinces. Obviously I will also use some written sources but I will try to give mainly the archaeological point of view in order to get a different perspective. This thesis focuses on three issues: What was the function of the Roman army in Egypt? Is the function of the Roman army unique in Egypt or can it be recognized in other provinces? What can the archaeology of the Roman army in Egypt tells us of the Roman army in general? In order to give answers to these problems I have to give an overview of the archaeology of the Roman army in Egypt. Due to the reasons mentioned above this forms a problem on its own. The literature of Roman archaeology in Egypt is very limited. Most specific research is carried out in the Eastern Desert where some quarry sites are excavated. However other sites throughout Egypt are scarcely researched and often without archaeological methods.4 So the available literature is scattered and the goal of this thesis is also to make an overview of all this data. The first chapter gives an overview of the Roman army in general. The army is the most important feature on which the Roman Empire is build on. This feature shall be elaborated in the first chapter. The next chapter gives an overview of the Roman army in Egypt. This history will show the background of the Roman army and its location within Egypt. In the third chapter I will discuss the recruitment and function of the Roman soldiers. In the final two chapters I will discuss the various military installations. In the conclusion the contents of these chapters fall together in order to answer the above-mentioned issues.Show less
This paper utilizes unpublished excavation data from Leiden University’s excavation at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria to examine two types of figurines from the site’s Late Bronze Age Middle Assyrian...Show moreThis paper utilizes unpublished excavation data from Leiden University’s excavation at Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria to examine two types of figurines from the site’s Late Bronze Age Middle Assyrian occupation in the late 13th and 12th centuries BCE. Beyond the contextual and analytical presentation of new material to the archaeological community, it reestablishes an understudied typology through the promotion of a geographical, chronological, cultural, and functional frameworks. This study uses the figurines as a base to explore issues inherent in their find contexts and preservation. After establishing typologies and object catalogs, it explores the archaeological visibility of intentional material disregard, the dynamism of contemporary value attributions to representative material culture, and the interplay of ancient peoples with their local histories. In highlighting the functionality of a symbolic material culture that existed outside the settlement’s imperial sphere, this thesis uses the figurines to reveal the cosmopolitan nature of the common people at Tell Sabi Abyad. The study establishes one typology as non-Assyrian and invasive, and uses the context and fracture patterns of the others to show that they reflect utilitarian rather than ritual usage.Show less
The Early Bronze Age in the Transcaucasian region of Turkey is marked by vast changes in organization of society resulting in varied patterns of interaction. The view that peoples from...Show moreThe Early Bronze Age in the Transcaucasian region of Turkey is marked by vast changes in organization of society resulting in varied patterns of interaction. The view that peoples from Transcaucasia migrated southwards to the Amuq Plain then to Palestine still leads the discussion based predominantly on pottery assemblages. The ETC ware horizon encompasses modern day northern Transcaucasia, eastern and southeastern Turkey, the Amuq Plain, Palestine and the Levant where local individuality exists along side universal ETC ware characteristics. A focal aspect of this paper is to ask if there was an ETC culture and if so, does the distribution of andirons indicate the artifact was part of their identity? Due to the migratory behavior of the producers of ETC wares, this thesis puts forth that groups with ETC wares preserved a sense of identity though maintaining andirons as a religious or cult object. By studying the presence of ETC wares and the associated andirons from various sites, this thesis attempts to understand identity through the migration process and stylistic variations.Show less
Tijdens de Laat Post-Klassieke (1200 A.D. - 1521 A.D. periode zijn in Centraal Mesoamerika verschillende oorlogen gevoerd die xochiyaoyotl (ook wel bekend als bloemenoorlogen) genoemd werden. Lang...Show moreTijdens de Laat Post-Klassieke (1200 A.D. - 1521 A.D. periode zijn in Centraal Mesoamerika verschillende oorlogen gevoerd die xochiyaoyotl (ook wel bekend als bloemenoorlogen) genoemd werden. Lang werd er gedacht dat deze oorlogen waren ingesteld door de Azteken om met de omliggende staten oorlog te kunnen voeren. Ze waren namelijk bedoeld om genoeg gevangenen te verkrijgen voor het offeren en het zou zorg dragen voor de training van de krijgers. Het diende een religieus en ritueel doel, omdat de gemeenschap constant oorlog moest voeren om gevangenen te verkrijgen voor het offeren zodat de goden tevreden gesteld zouden zijn. Deze aanname is vooral geadopteerd door wetenschappers voor 1975 die zich uit lieten over de xochiyaoyotl. (Coe 1962; Davies 1980; Katz 1972; Vaillant 1950) Na 1975 zijn er verschillende wetenschappers geweest die deze aanname aan de kaak stelden. Harner (1977) stelde voor dat de xochiyaoyotl was ‘uitgevonden’ door de Azteken als reactie op de hongersnood in 1454. Hij stelde voor dat voor de xochiyaoyotl een ecologische basis had. Door populatiedruk en een eiwit-tekort veroorzaakt door de hongersnood. Moesten de Azteken andere mogelijkheden zoeken om dit aan te vullen. De Azteken zouden van een op maize gebaseerde voedsel voorziening toe leggen op het eten van menselijke offers. Deze zienswijze werd zeer bekritiseerd maar het gaf de aanleiding voor andere wetenschappers beter te kijken naar de motieven van de xochiyaoyotl. In 1979 zou Hicks in zijn artikel aangeven, dat het verkrijgen van gevangen voor het offeren te veel aandacht kreeg. Hij benadrukte dat de xochiyaoyotl niet was bedoeld om gebieden te veroveren maar beter beschouwd kon worden als een soort sport. In het artikel van Isaac (1983) wordt de xochiyaoyotl van de Azteken met de staten van de Puebla/Tlaxcala vallei in 1467 tot en met 1519 onderzocht. Isaac stelde dat het rituele aspect van de xochiyaoyotl door Harner en Hicks te veel was benadrukt. Hij stelde dat de oplossing gezocht moest worden in een geopolitieke verklaring. Er moest rekening gehouden worden met de situatie waarin de Azteken zich verkeerden (zoals rebellie in het imperium en sterke vijanden aan de grenzen). De xochiyaoyotl was waarschijnlijk gebruikt als een soort propaganda om de slechte positie waar de Azteken in verkeerden te verbloemen. Het zou gevaarlijk kunnen zijn voor de Azteken om toe te geven dat ze de naburige staten niet konden overheersen. Om te verklaren dat de oorlogen een xochiyaoyotl zou zijn zou een veiligere optie zijn. In het boek van Hassig (1988), Aztec Warfare, stelt hij dat de xochiyaoyotl een product was van de Azteekse imperiale expansionistische strategie. Door de logistieke problemen die de Azteken ervaarden voor het veroveren en bezetten van gebieden die veraf lagen. Zou een xochiyaoyotl de oplossing zijn om uit eindelijk de hulpbronnen (krijgers in dit geval) uit te putten. Het was een tactiek om uiteindelijk de tegenstander te verzwakken om zo de tegenstander te kunnen veroveren. Het was ook een tactiek om een bepaalde dreiging in te perken, een succesvolle xochiyaoyotl zou minder troepen kosten en deze konden dan in andere gebieden worden ingezet. Maar het belangrijkste motief van de xochiyaoyotl zou wel een constante ‘show of force’ zijn, om zo een waarschuwing te geven aan de naburige staten. Het was een efficiënte manier om conflicten op te lossen. In de afgelopen 20 jaar is er geen verder onderzoek meer geweest naar de toedracht en motieven van de xochiyaoyotl. Zoals hier boven te lezen is, is vooral één reden waar de wetenschappers het motief van de xochiyaoyotl verklaren. Deze scriptie is daarom geschreven, om nog eens de motieven van de xochiyaoyotl te onderzoeken. Elke xochiyaoyotl moet beschouwd worden in haar eigen tijdsperiode en regio. Daarbij moet goed gekeken worden naar de historische bronnen, culturele relaties, verhouding tussen macht en hoe deze verweven zijn met ideeën in het desbetreffende gebied en tijdsperiode. Belangrijk bij het bekijken van de historische bronnen is dat er verschillende vooroordelen in voor kunnen komen. De historische bronnen zijn na de Spaanse verovering geschreven. Dit betekent dat de auteur niet aanwezig waren ten tijde van de Laat Post-Klassieke period, er kan dus een verkeerd beeld van de situatie geschetst worden. Tevens zijn de verschillende perspectieven waar vanuit de bronnen zijn geschreven belangrijk. Het desbetreffende perspectief kan immers situaties voor bepaalde partijen gunstiger laten voort doen. Eveneens is belangrijk uit welke sociale klasse een auteur afkomstig was, het is namelijk mogelijk dat verschillende auteurs schreven om de hoge positie die zij bekleedden te legitimeren aan de hand van het schrijven van de bronnen. Hoewel deze verschillen in het beschrijven van de gebeurtenissen veel verwarring kan veroorzaken, geeft het juist ook de mogelijkheid om evenementen die op verschillende manieren te interpreteren. In deze scriptie is aan het licht gekomen dat de xochiyaoyotl niet een speciaal Azteekse aangelegenheid was. Het was een Centraal Mesoamerikaanse aangelegenheid die waarschijnlijk voor 1324 werd gepraktiseerd. Er is een indeling gemaakt van drie verschillende periodes waarin verschillende xochiyaoyotl vallen. Namelijk de xochiyaoyotl van Chalcas Acxotecas tegen Tlacochcalca in 1324, de xochiyaoyotl van de Mexica tegen Chalca in 1375 en de doorgaande oorlog van de Azteken tegen de staten van de Puebla/Tlaxcala vallei in 1467. Het is duidelijk geworden dat de xochiyaoyotl, zoals door wetenschappers die voor 1975 de xochiyaoyotl beschreven, niet klopte. De xochiyaoyotl zou een oorlog zijn geweest die gebaseerd was op een overeenkomst tussen twee staten om zo gevangen te verkrijgen voor het offeren en het trainen van de manschappen. De xochiyaoyotl was niet een specifiek soort oorlog waar speciale regels aan waren verbonden, het was eerder een aanduiding van de krijgers voor oorlogen die werden gezien als zeer eervol. Het was een motivatie waarin de krijgers zich sterk in voelden, het kon gebruik worden voor verschillende oorlogen en niet specifiek voor oorlogen tegen een bepaalde tegenstander. Het woord xochiyaoyotl gaf aan hoe belangrijk het in oorlog is om een sterke motivatie te hebben. Deze motivatie lag ten grondslag aan de notie van macht en hoe deze werd verdedigd en bekrachtigd. Macht is verweven met ideeën, deze ideeën gaven de motivatie en legitimiteit voor de acties die door de maatschappij werden uitgevoerd. Net als tegenwoordig, was dit voor de krijgers in Centraal Mesoamerika niet anders. Het geeft aan hoe oorlog in Centraal Mesoamerika een onderdeel van het leven vormde. De motivatie en het eervolle besef waren belangrijk voor de krijgers en daar werden woorden voor ontleend dit resulteerde in het gebruik van bepaalde oorlogen te omschrijven als een xochiyaoyotl waar krijgers naar toe gingen om eeuwige roem en onsterfelijkheid te verkrijgen door de dood.Show less
Biostratigraphy is the most applied dating device for Quaternary (archaeological) sites, based on presumed predictable evolutionary changes in species morphology. The velocity of evolution may...Show moreBiostratigraphy is the most applied dating device for Quaternary (archaeological) sites, based on presumed predictable evolutionary changes in species morphology. The velocity of evolution may however deviate from directional trends due to a large amount of influencing factors, that are moreover not all identifiable fossil record. It is tried to relate patterns of morphological change to possible causal factors throughout this thesis, but due to unknown (relative) importance of these parameters use of biostratigraphy is hardly justifiable. On a higher level, the rates of speciation and evolutionary modes level also give very little chronological support, as the mechanisms behind these patterns are likewise largely unknown. Because the blanks in a dated evolutionary scheme cannot be filled in with certainty, the use of biostratigraphy is hardly tolerable. Unfortunately, due to a lack of other dating methods it currently remains in use, but should be seriously questioned for the future if not more information is gained from modern studies on recognizing (proportional) influences involved in the velocity of evolution.Show less
After finishing my BA-Thesis on the burials of Anse à la Gourde in 2008 and excavating burials in 2009 on St. Lucia I knew I wanted to do more with burials, mortuary practices and taphonomy....Show moreAfter finishing my BA-Thesis on the burials of Anse à la Gourde in 2008 and excavating burials in 2009 on St. Lucia I knew I wanted to do more with burials, mortuary practices and taphonomy. Instead of doing another casestudy of just one assemblage, the idea came to compare samples from three assemblages in the Caribbean. These three sites are Kelbey’s Ridge 2 on Saba, Anse à la Gourde on Guadeloupe and Anse Lavoutte (Cas-en-Bas) on St. Lucia. The goal was to see if the burial customs from these three islands were the same. From each assemblage, a sample from seven burials were taken, mostly random. To make the comparison as valid as possible, all burials were described according to a uniform approach. The cultural context and ancestry was also extensively examined in order to make sure that a comparison could be made and that the ancestry was the resembling or at least had the same common history in terms of origin. When the origin turned out to be alike, the 21 burials were analysed upon their single or multiple deposit, their primary or secondary state and if they were filled or empty during the time of decomposition. In the end it turns out that the all three samples showed correspondence on multiple levels and it is concluded that they share the same burial customs.Show less
This thesis deals with the Mesolithic barbed points which were found by amateur archaeologists at the area of Europoort in the Netherlands. The main goal of the thesis was to find out the possible...Show moreThis thesis deals with the Mesolithic barbed points which were found by amateur archaeologists at the area of Europoort in the Netherlands. The main goal of the thesis was to find out the possible ways of production and use of the barbed points by producing and using copies via experiments. Overall fifteen artifacts were loaned out from the Archaeological Museum of Leiden in order to be studied for the purposes of the thesis. They were made of antler and bone (mostly metapodia). The original barbed points were checked for possible traces under stereo microscope and metallographic analysis took place as well. The next step was to produce five experimental barbed points based on the information which their analyses gave. Hence, the groove and splinter technique was used for the two antler barbed points and the metapodial technique for the two barbed points made of bone. The fifth experimental tool was made out of a rib bone, which was cut in pieces in order to take the proper piece needed for the manufacture. All of them were grinded on a sand stone in order to take the proper shape and a flint blade was used to make the barbs. After that they were hafted on spears and arrows, depending on their size, and the shooting experiments took place near the city of Arnhem in the Netherlands. The experimental tools proved to be really effective. The used barbed points were analyzed and documented photographically the same way as the original artifacts. When the Mesolithic and the experimental barbed points were compared, it came out that they bear in a considerable amount the same kind of traces. Most of them were caused during the production process (grinding or scratches due to the flint tool which was used), while there is a few amount of impact scars and use wear traces. The only exception, as far as the scratches are concerned, is that the original artifacts bear a lot of randomly directed scratches, while the experimental barbed points barely have any. Therefore, it was assumed that they were a result of depositional modifications. Finally, in the discussion part of the thesis a variety of ways is suggested on how the experimental tools can be used to benefit the public, in the context of heritage management.Show less
The region of Southeast Asia is known as an epicenter for a diversity of maritime communities. The complex scatter of islands that comprise the whole region has patterned the lives of generations...Show moreThe region of Southeast Asia is known as an epicenter for a diversity of maritime communities. The complex scatter of islands that comprise the whole region has patterned the lives of generations of maritime communities. As a result, the cultural characteristics and social diversity of the local communities of people in this region is as notable as the sea that surrounds them. This geographic and cultural characteristic has given the boat a central role in the cultural history of many ethnic groups in the Southeast Asian islands. In general, for people in this region, the boat has always been more than just a seagoing vessel. Its presence in various representations has created a symbolic complex to which expressions of the group identity and communal unity can be related. This thesis presents the research of boat symbolism by focusing on the Southeast Moluccas as the case study. Two main issues will be discussed here. The first is related to the material representations of this symbolism and the second concerns the meaning and cultural-historical background of the practice of representing boat symbolism. Furthermore, this thesis analyzed how these practices have been adopted in an early stage and how these practices can be attached to special meanings and identities due to their associations with places, events, and lineage groups. As the representations of boat symbolism has served as the cultural-mark for people in this region, it will be discussed how this practice has been actively involved in the construction of cultural identity for the people in this region.Show less
In this research I will study the phenomenon of ritualized burial practices in the Middle Bronze IIA period in Northern Palestine .My main focus will be the theoretical controversies that surround...Show moreIn this research I will study the phenomenon of ritualized burial practices in the Middle Bronze IIA period in Northern Palestine .My main focus will be the theoretical controversies that surround the study of burials. Since the past century has the evolutionary theory by Darwin inspired many researchers but in my opinion have they not all applied his work correctly. There is also no clear criterion by which cultural anthropologists and archaeologists determine that a particular type of behaviour is or not is an instance of ritual. On the base of evolutionary biology and neuropsychology new definitions entered the discussion and I will explore the possibilities to apply them on the archaeological record. Interestingly the research on obsessive compulsive behaviour showed that ritualized behaviour is not different in non-clinical contexts and cultural ceremonies.Show less
Sanger based sequencing of mammoth and mastodon dung samples were performed. The mammoth samples, from permafrost regions in Alaska and Siberia, were successfully amplified and sequenced. The...Show moreSanger based sequencing of mammoth and mastodon dung samples were performed. The mammoth samples, from permafrost regions in Alaska and Siberia, were successfully amplified and sequenced. The mastodon samples, preserved in a continuously wet, cool, low-pH, anoxic environment, on the other hand, could not be amplified; possibly because they still contained living bacteria. Innovative procedures were used to establish an optimal functioning protocol and process the sequences. The obtained results are compared with each other, based on the target gene region, as well as with conventional morphological paleoecological methods of diet reconstruction. It is concluded that it is advantageous to use Sanger based sequencing with multiple target regions for diet analysis with ancient DNA. The additional value of ancient DNA analysis is relatively large for diet analysis, as 30-50% of the obtained identifications refined the morphological analyses, and the remaining identifications supported the morphological analyses completely.Show less
The large mammal material described in this MA-thesis comes from the open brown coal quarry near Schöningen (Niedersachen, Germany). This quarry contains several Pleistocene sites. The focus of...Show moreThe large mammal material described in this MA-thesis comes from the open brown coal quarry near Schöningen (Niedersachen, Germany). This quarry contains several Pleistocene sites. The focus of this MA-thesis is on the site Schö 13 II. This site became famous when in 1994 several wooden artefacts and wooden spears were found among the remains of several horses. The site consists of several layers, Schö 13 II-1 till Schö 13 II-5, representing the Reinsdorf Interglacial. Previous research has been done on the large mammal assemblage on layer Schö 13 II-4, the spear horizon. In this thesis large mammal material from layer Schö 13 II-1 till Schö 13 II-4 will be looked at and compared. The material of layer Schö 13 II-5 is scarce and in bad condition. The large mammal assemblages of the different layers show the development of the second part of an interglacial, with interglacial species like Sus scrofa and Capreolus capreolus in layer Schö 13 II-1, the interglacial maximum. Those typical interglacial species disappear in the following layers, although cf. Capreolus capreolus is present in layer Schö 13 II-3. This means the climate was not as cool as previous thought. The large mammal assemblage from layer Schö 13 II-4 is most abundant and shows a cool climate with an open vegetation. Equus mosbachensis dominates the material. This is caused by hunting and butchering activities by hominids. Other species like Bison priscus and Stephanorhinus hemitoechus do confirm a steppe like environment. One molar of the forest dwelling species Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis indicates that some patches of forest should have been present. This means the climate during the deposition of layer Schö 13 II-4 was not as cold as indicated by the pollen analyses. When comparing the large mammal species present in the different layers of the Reinsdorf Interglacial it becomes clear that a large difference in body size is visible between the animals in the oldest and in the youngest layers. This should mean the evolution speed varies during the Middle Pleistocene. Evolution is fast during the Reinsdorf Interglacial. Evolution is therefore not a gradual process. This has consequences for the use of biostratigraphy. The biostratigraphy based on the difference in size between populations should be reconsidered.Show less
Ever since the world became aware of ancient Panamá’s archaeological remains, archaeologists have been fascinated by the intricate designs exhibited on its stones, ceramics, and gold work. This...Show moreEver since the world became aware of ancient Panamá’s archaeological remains, archaeologists have been fascinated by the intricate designs exhibited on its stones, ceramics, and gold work. This interest increased and formalised with the discovery of a rich graphic repertoire at Sitio Conte in the 1930s, and a subsequent rising concern with the worldview of Panamá's pre-contact population. The study of Central Panamanian iconography thus acquired growing importance. With the advancing significance of this subject, however, interpretations remained highly subjective, and in lack of a structured methodological approach. This situation has prompted the author to review the reasons underlying these shortcomings, a procedure that, in turn, has led to a contemplation of the cognitive origins of iconography. Building on the latter insights, the author proceeds to evaluate the effectiveness of typical approaches of iconographical inquiry, finding that none of the existing methods is sufficiently flexible, or scalable, for application to a pre-literate context. Consequently, a new, five-step methodology is contrived, which efficacy is tested by putting its first two stages into practice with reference to a case-study of Macaracas-style imagery. As such, this thesis does not just deal with the theoretical and methodological difficulties of doing iconographic research, but also highlights some interesting peculiarities of Central Panamanian imageries.Show less
The 4th century marks the beginning of Christianity in Gaul. During the first two decades of the 4th century, Christians were still persecuted by law but by the end of the century Christianity had...Show moreThe 4th century marks the beginning of Christianity in Gaul. During the first two decades of the 4th century, Christians were still persecuted by law but by the end of the century Christianity had become the state religion of the Roman Empire. This was not only possible because of the pro-Christian emperors, starting with Constantine I. but also because of changes in society. Christianity was not yet accepted everywhere, but the new religion became more and more prominent, especially in the cities. But how prominent was it compared to the state religion of the Roman gods? Gradually Christianity gained means to present itself in a better way. Aristocratic and wealthy families which had been converted to Christianity played an important role in that process. Christianity adjusted itself to the circumstances of the moment like inflation, invaders, emperors, usurpers, etc. and used them to its benefit. However, the circumstances are not the same for every city and every province. Regional differences are reflected in the degree of Christianization, the presence of a bishop, the presence and location of a church and other Christian buildings. This thesis looks at the question “How prominent was Christianity in the cities in Gaul during the 4th century?” In order to answer this question, the situations of Christianity and of the cities in Gaul need to be investigated shortly. The background of the 4th century is covered in chapters 3 and 4. Chapter 5 is devoted to the church buildings: what did they look like and where were they located? In chapter 6 the main players of Christianity are discussed: what functions did the clergy have and what status did the clergy – mainly focusing on bishops – have and which position did the laymen hold in Gaul in the 4th century? Chapter 7 puts all this information together and provides an overview of the Christian presence and prominence in every province, based on a list of all the cities in Gaul, which can be found in appendices V to XXI. The final chapter explores the pagan presence and prominence in the cities Gaul in the 4th century.Show less
In this thesis the results of a cannon and anchor survey on the Caribbean island St. Eustatius are presented and discussed. St. Eustatius was an extremely busy port during the latter half of the...Show moreIn this thesis the results of a cannon and anchor survey on the Caribbean island St. Eustatius are presented and discussed. St. Eustatius was an extremely busy port during the latter half of the eighteenth century, and changed hands 22 times in the span of 180 years. To provide a framework in which these objects can be placed, an outline of the history of St. Eustatius as well as a general introduction to cannon and anchors are given. It was found that the French, Dutch, and English anchors encountered during our survey are indicators of the flourishing economy on St. Eustatius during the late eighteenth century. The cannon are particularly revealing, in that they can reveal a lot about the military history of the island. There was found to be a great variety of cannon on the island, ranging from the smallest calibers to 24-pounders, and from Norwegian to Spanish manufacture. These guns were cast in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Besides general conclusions, a detailed analysis of the various forts and their guns is given. Some suggestions for the management of these artifacts are made as well.Show less
Museums are the places where many people come into direct contact with archaeology for the first time. By visiting museum presentations and exhibitions the public can see and enjoy the...Show moreMuseums are the places where many people come into direct contact with archaeology for the first time. By visiting museum presentations and exhibitions the public can see and enjoy the archaeological remains of ancient civilizations and peoples. Museums are a significant and powerful instrument for public knowledge and construction of the past. The tasks of archaeological museums are not easy to define. The tasks archaeological museums had in the past have now been diminished or taken over by other institutes and organizations. The tasks that most (inter)national organisations assign to museums can be divided into collection management tasks including acquiring, conserving and researching and public tasks such as communication, exhibitioning and education. In this thesis article 9 of The ‘Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage of Europe’, usually referred to as the Malta Convention, is taken as a basis. I argue that in addition to transferring archaeological knowledge, archaeological museums should also aim to generate public involvement in archaeological heritage management. Such involvement is needed in order to make sure that the archaeological heritage, including archaeological collections, is preserved for the present as well as future generations and protected against both legal and illegal activities. In order to achieve this museums should not only offer knowledge to their public on archaeological objects, materials and cultures, but also on their value to society, the threats archaeological heritage faces, ethical issues, (inter)national legislation and the archaeological profession as a whole. Furthermore, I argue that museums should aim and have the task to serve an as broad as possible audience. Because by aiming to serve every single member of the public, museums can increase the overall appreciation of the past and archaeological knowledge. By doing this they create an enduring and far reaching basis of public awareness and support for archaeological heritage management. So, the task I state archaeological museums have is to offer knowledge and education through the presentation of archaeological collections to all members of the public on all of the different aspects of the archaeological heritage and profession in order to create public awareness and support for archaeological heritage management. The aim of my thesis is to investigate how Dutch museums fulfil their task of presenting Dutch archaeological collections to the public and, by doing so, creating public awareness and support for archaeological heritage management. I investigate this by looking at three aspects of archaeological museum presentations: what is presented, what visitor groups and target audiences do the museums aim to attract and what are the aims of the archaeological presentations. The research is an unique inventory research covering the Dutch archaeological collection of the following museums: the National Museum of Antiquities, Drents Museum, Fries Museum, Groninger Museum, Limburgs Museum, Museum Het Valkhof and Noordbrabants Museum. In order to give a complete overview of the museums’ presentations, the past, present and future permanent presentations as well as the temporary exhibitions of the seven selected museums are reviewed and compared. The data was gathered by visiting the museum presentations, by interviewing the curators of the selected museums, reading the year reports, policy plans and collections plans of the museums, and by reading general literature on museum presentation and archaeological museums as well as governmental policies, legislation on archaeological heritage and policies of (inter)national organisations. Based on the data obtained during the research it can be concluded that the archaeological presentations of the museums are very much focused on archaeological objects which are mainly used to illustrate themes relating to the daily lives of past societies, such as death, religion, utensils, arts and crafts, household, war and jewellery. The presentations are only placed in the context of the museums’ own provinces and focus on one main time period, instead of covering the wider cultural historical framework and the entire archaeological record. Temporary exhibitions on Dutch archaeology are in general not held very often. Non-archaeological themes or themes relating to the archaeology of foreign countries are preferred over them since they attract more visitors. The themes, time periods and outline of these exhibitions are very similar to those of the permanent presentations, and can thus be seen as an extension instead of an addition. It can also be concluded that teenagers, young adults, middle aged adults and the allochtonous population are the visitor groups that are currently underrepresented in the museums. The main target groups of the current and future Dutch archaeological presentations and exhibitions are school children, families and elder people. The museums therefore do not aim to provide for an as broad as possible audience. The presentations and exhibitions succeed in offering archaeological knowledge on objects, materials, themes and specific cultures to the public. However, I argue that public awareness and support for archaeological heritage management in The Netherlands are not established in this way. In order to do this themes like the archaeological profession as a whole, the value of archaeological heritage to society, the threats the archaeological record faces, national legislation and ethical issues should be included in the presentations as well. Only then is the public provided with a complete overview of all the aspects of Dutch archaeological heritage management; only then can the public place the objects in their wider context because they know where the objects come from, how they have been retrieved, what threats they face and how they are protected against both illegal and legal activities. This complete overview, or framework or context, can lead to increased public awareness and support. The aims of the museums do not include creating public awareness and support for Dutch archaeological heritage management. The archaeological profession is only paid attention to in the presentation of the Drents Museum. Furthermore, none of the presentations offer any information on the value of the archaeological heritage to society, the threats the archaeological heritage faces and ethical issues surrounding the archaeological profession. As I argued in the introduction, these are the topics that can generate public awareness and support for Dutch archaeological heritage management. The museums however focus only on the transfer of knowledge on the archaeological objects, past societies, materials and specific cultures. Furthermore, the museums do not aim to attract an as broad as possible audience but focus on school children, families and elder people. Therefore, I can conclude that the presentations in museums of Dutch archaeological collections do not fulfil their task of creating awareness and support for Dutch archaeological heritage management amongst an as broad as possible public.Show less
