Skeletal non-metric traits (NMTs) are minor morphological variants that are often used by osteoarchaeologists to determine genetic affiliation between past populations (biodistance). Some NMTs are...Show moreSkeletal non-metric traits (NMTs) are minor morphological variants that are often used by osteoarchaeologists to determine genetic affiliation between past populations (biodistance). Some NMTs are heavily affected by environmental factors, especially habitual physical activities, whereas others have a genetic cause. This study introduces the novel application of subdividing NMTs into a mechanical, genetic, and ambiguous category, to elucidate traits of different heritability. This method is applied to a sample of 93 well-preserved adult skeletons from the 17th-19th century AD cemetery of Middenbeemster, the Netherlands. Twenty-six cranial and post-cranial skeletal NMTs were examined to determine: 1) whether significant differences in NMTs between males and females, and different age groups were present, 2) whether significant differences in mechanical NMTs versus genetic NMTs were present in the Middenbeemster sample, and 3) whether there was more variation in mechanical versus genetic NMT frequency between Middenbeemster and comparative groups of the same ethnicity. It is expected that mechanical NMTs would exhibit more variation than genetic NMTs, since it is thought that activities vary more between groups than their genes. No statistically significant differences in NMT frequency were present between males and females, or among age categories. No statistically significant differences were observed between the genetic and mechanical NMT categories in the Middenbeemster sample. Finally, no significant differences were encountered when comparing Middenbeemster to comparative assemblages. The results are affected by a small sample size, and the lack of comparative samples with frequency data for many NMTs. Future research using this categorisation can provide insight in highly heritable NMTs, which will improve the accuracy selection of biodistance studies, and traits that are more mechanically affected, for use in past activity reconstruction.Show less
Excavations at the Early Medieval site of Oegstgeest, located in the Dutch Rhine estuary, have yielded the burials of three horses and three dogs. In order to understand why these animals were...Show moreExcavations at the Early Medieval site of Oegstgeest, located in the Dutch Rhine estuary, have yielded the burials of three horses and three dogs. In order to understand why these animals were buried and how their burials relate to the roles these animals fulfilled for the inhabitants of the settlement, a zooarchaeological study of their articulated remains has been combined with a critical analysis of existing literature and previous notions about the nature of Early Medieval dog and horse burials. It is argued that at the buried horses were first used as riding animals and then sacrificed to display wealth and status. The buried dogs on the other hand were considered social companions and buried accordingly after they died. Both the burying of dogs and sacrifice of horses fits a burial pattern specific for the North Sea coast, and could indicate the presence of a local elite at the settlement of Oegstgeest, with the means to keep large dogs and kill valuable riding steeds.Show less
Since the beginning of research on the Indus civilisation of northwest South Asia the issue of social and political organisation has been unresolved. Even basic things such as the bases for social...Show moreSince the beginning of research on the Indus civilisation of northwest South Asia the issue of social and political organisation has been unresolved. Even basic things such as the bases for social status and power are still unclear. The distribution of the Indus stamp seals and their iconography can give us some indication of social organisation within settlements. A more detailed analysis comparing them to different types of artefacts may result in a more nuanced understanding of social and economic hierarchies. This thesis will analyse variation in Indus seals across sites through analysis of an up-to-date corpus Indus stamp seals at the city of Mohenjo-Daro. The spatial distribution of the seals will be compared with the distribution of four types of artefacts linked to social organisation, trade and ideology: figurines, bangles, several types of beads and weights. This will also be reintegrated with architectural data. My hypothesis is that the distribution of seals within cities might be more indicative of their specific function in trade and administration than just the socioeconomic status of the owner. If this is the case, then variation in distribution may reflect different uses of the seals occurring in different areas of Mohenjo-Daro. There is a complex relationship between status, ideology and the expression of that status in the archaeological record. Studying one category of evidence, such as seals, bangles or architecture separate from each other will only give an incomplete picture; these types of data need to be combined to achieve a more complete understanding of them.Show less
Analyzing the acquisition policies of museums is an important way to understand how the legal as well as ethical standards have evolved since 1970. Museums were influenced by these changing...Show moreAnalyzing the acquisition policies of museums is an important way to understand how the legal as well as ethical standards have evolved since 1970. Museums were influenced by these changing standards: What could be bought legally some years ago can no longer be bought legally today. This has to do with how the legal and ethical standards evolved. Furthermore, it is evident from the research that museums have understood that they can no longer buy unprovenanced antiquities and, for this reason, have published acquisition policies and declarations. The year 1970 can be seen as the turning point in the protection of antiquities. In this year, the first ethical codes were published by museums as well as the ICOM Code of Ethics; and in November 1970 the UNESCO Convention was put into effect. This thesis analyzes the acquisition policy of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden and compares it with other major museums.Show less
This thesis compares the dental pathologies of fifty individuals from a 19th century Dutch rural cemetery divided in even groups of men and women, and four age categories. Between these groups the...Show moreThis thesis compares the dental pathologies of fifty individuals from a 19th century Dutch rural cemetery divided in even groups of men and women, and four age categories. Between these groups the amounts of ante-mortem tooth loss, caries, calculus, attrition and activity-related wear were examined. The results are that ante-mortem tooth loss was relatively high even under thirty-five years of age, while no significant differences between the sexes were visible. Caries amounts were significantly high among women, but in the comparison between age groups only the early young adults seemed to be affected less than the other three age groups. Calculus deposits were significantly higher among men and went up from the early young adults to the late young adults but then lowered again towards the middle and old adults, probably as a result of ante-mortem tooth loss in these groups. Attrition rates were significantly higher among men and across the age groups a slight increase in attrition rates was visible. Activity-related wear was high in men with more than 90% of all individuals presenting signs of wear, especially due to clay pipe smoking resulting in pipe notches. Three women also showed clear signs of pipe notches due to smoking clay pipes. In contrast to earlier results there seems to be a slight statistical correlation between the total amount of caries and the amount of wear, a small negative correlation between the amount of caries and the average rate of attrition per individual and a small positive correlation between attrition and activity related wear. The previously discussed data also gives a few clues toward the diet of both men and women. Women were probably more likely to eat sweets and sugary foods than men due to their large amount of caries while men were likely to eat starchy foods such as bread that were also abrasive resulting in higher rates of calculus and attrition. The general state of oral health is difficult to ascertain but it is clear that calculus, caries and attrition rates were high while not so much attention was given to cleaning the teeth or visiting a physician to have sick teeth pulled.Show less
Body mass increases when nutritional status increases and decreases when there is a lack of essential nutrients. Bone is a dynamic organ that continuously undergoes a process involving bone...Show moreBody mass increases when nutritional status increases and decreases when there is a lack of essential nutrients. Bone is a dynamic organ that continuously undergoes a process involving bone absorption and formation. Previous research has focused on average body mass estimations or pathological responses to body mass extremes. However, limited research has been done towards body mass estimation accuracy when body mass falls under an extreme. In the summer of 2011, the laboratory for human osteoarchaeology and the Dutch archaeological company Hollandia excavated a cemetery in Middenbeemster, The Netherlands. This skeletal population is unique since the cemetery could be linked to detailed historical information, including age, sex, and cause of death. The aim of this study was to study the prevalence of body mass extremes in the 19th century skeletal population. Furthermore, it has been studied whether the age related features experience influence from body mass and whether pathological lesions known to be associated with body mass have a correlation with body mass in the Middenbeemster skeletal population as well. Body mass estimations have been made with both the femoral head diameter and stature-bi-iliac breadth (STBIB). The age estimations, to assess the influence of body mass on age related features, have been made with both pubic symphyseal morphology and auricular surface morphology. The age estimations were compared to the true age at death, which were available from historical data. Special care has been taken in interpreting the results, because confounding factors may have caused bias. It appeared that the skeletal population of Middenbeemster was composed of primarily normal and overweight individuals, with a significant difference among males and females. Furthermore, there has not been a significant influence of body mass on age related features in this skeletal sample. The correlation of pathological lesions known to be associated with body mass was not significantly correlated with body mass in this skeletal sample. Together with other research, this study will be part of the enormously detailed historical framework of the population of 19th century Middenbeemster.Show less
The post-modernist preoccupation with representation has not eluded modern museological debate. How and why museum’s choose to represent knowledge in certain ways has catalyzed much discussion. In...Show moreThe post-modernist preoccupation with representation has not eluded modern museological debate. How and why museum’s choose to represent knowledge in certain ways has catalyzed much discussion. In recent years there have been calls to move away from a didactic to a more dialogic model of presentation, one that transcends the mold of the curator as the authoritative voice to a more democratized experience that incorporates the indigenous voice, and facilitates visitor interaction and participation. Within this field of discussion exists the notion of narrative and story within exhibitions. This thesis will explore how narratives are created and then applied to ethnographic exhibitions within the modern museum setting.Show less
Tombs from various areas in the world have been reopened in antiquity. In this thesis the reopened Xiongnu period (200BC – 150 AD) graves are reinterpreted in different ways to compare them with ...Show moreTombs from various areas in the world have been reopened in antiquity. In this thesis the reopened Xiongnu period (200BC – 150 AD) graves are reinterpreted in different ways to compare them with ‘pristine’ graves. The goal of this thesis is to get insight in the degree in which reopened graves differed from intact graves and explore the existence patterns of that show in which way these graves are different from each other. The size and type of a tomb and what coffin type was inside were compared to the difference in human remains and artefacts in the grave. These were set against the space in which they were found, which gives insight in the (distribution) patterns. For the artefacts both a quantitative and qualitative analysis was made. The burial size and the age category of the deceased proved to be closely linked with each other. The graves that became the target of a reopening contained of both adult and child burials. The burials of adults did not contain human remains, while the child burials did contain portions of the skeleton. Which might be related to a different treatment of graves from different age categories. The quantitative analysis of artefacts showed that reopened adult burials contained a relatively lower amount of grave goods, compared to the other graves as well as the amount of artefacts inside the other tomb spaces. The qualitative approach provided an overview of the difference between reopened tombs and pristine tombs. They differ in that the pristine adult burials that did not contain cart parts and belt plaques, while the reopened adult burials did contain these objects. This difference probably explained by a different gender status. The other goal was to show who was responsible for the reopening and when this happened, but the data for this was to thin.Show less
In eastern West-Frisia extensive excavations have taken place in the late ‘60, ‘70 and ‘80. The result is that a lot of data is available, but many of these excavations have only been preliminary...Show moreIn eastern West-Frisia extensive excavations have taken place in the late ‘60, ‘70 and ‘80. The result is that a lot of data is available, but many of these excavations have only been preliminary published. Therefore not all information is available or correct. A model made by IJzereef and Van Regteren Altena (1991) of the West-Frisian Middle and Late Bronze Age is based on preliminary data from two sites. Due to more recent excavations, which have been published, there is reason to believe that ‘the model’ needs to be reviewed. This will be executed in this thesis by making an unpublished site publishable; this site is Medemblik-Schuitenvoerderslaan. The struggle of working with 45-year old excavation documentation will be discussed to give other researchers insight in how to deal with this kind of data. The result of this research is a brief overview of the West-Frisian Middle Bronze Age based on three recently published excavations, the elaborated data of an unpublished site and the original model by IJzereef and Van Regteren Altena (1991).Show less
Abstract On sites all over West-Frisia circular structures have been found. There are two types of these; pit circles and circular ditches. Both types are very similar and are found in round, oval,...Show moreAbstract On sites all over West-Frisia circular structures have been found. There are two types of these; pit circles and circular ditches. Both types are very similar and are found in round, oval, figure 8 and cloverleaf shapes. Their dimensions are very similar; an average diameter of approximately 4 m, an average depth of 25 cm and an average width of 25 cm and some of them are closed and others interrupted. They usually contain very few finds if any. What was the function of these circular structures in West-Frisia during the Bronze Age? The hypothesis was that they were used for the temporary storage of grain and possible other crops. This was concluded in an article called ‘cereal in circles’ by Buurman in 1979 and was based on a hypothesis from Bakker (1967; 1977; 2004). Their hypothesis is based on very little data; just a handful of sites with carbonized grain. It seems to be based mainly on an old landscape model and circumstantial evidence. Because of the project ‘Farmers of the coast’, old data is now being reviewed. It has risen some doubt on earlier findings, including this ‘cereal in circles’ hypothesis. Since the 1970’s a lot of new excavations have taken place and some of the old data that was never published has now been digitized. The data from those new excavations more or less confirm the old data. But that also means that there is still no evidence for grain as well. That means that now (2013) over a thousand circular structures have been excavated with just a handful of them containing carbonized grain, which does not really proof the storing of grain anyway. Although there is no real proof against the existing hypothesis, there is in my opinion now enough data not confirming the old theory that there should be at least doubt. It seems unlikely that all the circular structures held the same function. It is quite possible that the circular structures in West-Frisia were used for multiple purposes, which would explain all the different shapes and sizes. The most likely explanation would be that they were simply drains, but that does not explain why they are not found in the Late Bronze Age. All in all it is clear that the true function of the circular structures in West-Frisia during the Bronze Age is still an enigma and therefore a lacuna in our knowledge of this area. Only future research and excavations may solve this mystery. Show less
The rescue-excavation at the open-cast mine in Schöningen started in 1982. Circa 25.000 faunal remains have been excavated since that moment. These remains have been identified as large mammal...Show moreThe rescue-excavation at the open-cast mine in Schöningen started in 1982. Circa 25.000 faunal remains have been excavated since that moment. These remains have been identified as large mammal remains, small mammals, fish, mollusks, amphibians and reptiles. However the category birds is missing. Circa 167 bird bones and several egg shells were present in the layers Schöningen 13 II-2, 13 II-3 and 13 II-4. Besides the identification of the bird remains, the bones are also checked for modification marks made by the hominins who occupied Schöningen. Also the bones are compared to other archaeological sites to compare the data from Schönignen withShow less
A misleading label was the starting point for the preparation of the current work. The erroneous interpretation of the relief portrait with inventory number F 1953/3.1 preserved in the Egyptian...Show moreA misleading label was the starting point for the preparation of the current work. The erroneous interpretation of the relief portrait with inventory number F 1953/3.1 preserved in the Egyptian exhibition of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden stimulated the interest of this author. Though labeled as a portrait of Tutankhamen (ruled ca. 1332 B.C. – 1322 B.C.) (Freed 1999, 275), observations of recent years come to show that the under discussion relief is most probably a depiction of Amenophis III (ruled ca. 1390 B.C. – 1353 B.C.) (Freed 1999, 201). The goal of this thesis is binary: a) firstly, as the main research question, to trace those elements leading to the assertion that the portrait belongs possibly to the time of Amenophis III and b) secondly, to raise the foundations for further study as regards to the question of how it is possible for the museum to believe for over sixty years that the exhibited artifact is a representation of Tutankhamen. The study on this matter is implemented via a methodology organized around the portrait’s stylistic analysis. In parallel, an argumentation will be formulated based on stylistic comparisons among representative artworks of the two kings’ portraiture and thereby a conglomeration of similarities and differences will become the fundamental axis of this work. The aforementioned synthesis will reveal two typological formations of Amenophis III’s and Tutankhamen’s imaging, focused on the rendering of their facial characteristics. The kings’ typology will constitute the cornerstone of this study and will provide connecting factors and highlighting correlations to the question: what made the museum staff to do incorrect assessment on this particular artwork’s identification for over sixty years? Are there stylistic reasons that caused such misinterpretation? What conclusions could be carried out from the total research process?Show less
Cultural heritage plays an important part in the rehabilitation process in post-war societies because it forms the physical part of an ethnic groups’ identity. In countries of the former Yugoslavia...Show moreCultural heritage plays an important part in the rehabilitation process in post-war societies because it forms the physical part of an ethnic groups’ identity. In countries of the former Yugoslavia, a shared narrative is used for rehabilitation purposes and implemented through the reconstruction of cultural heritage. Because the various ethnic groups living in countries of the former Yugoslavia have their own divergent memories to the war, reconstruction as a form of rehabilitation is difficult and disputed. In this thesis, I will show that the main difficulty of rehabilitation through the reconstruction of cultural heritage lies in the fact that it is used as a forced shared narrative, which does not enhance co-operation between ethnic groups, but effectively cements the already existing ethnic segregation. The archaeological heritage manager plays a key role in resolving this problem. Through his extensive background knowledge and methodology, the archaeological heritage manager forms a link between the local community, the national government and international community. Thus, while the national governments, through the involvement of the international community, saw the reconstruction of cultural heritage as a trigger for regional stabilization, results show that it is better used for the revitalization of the local community. Through this, rehabilitation will follow. This thesis focuses on the rehabilitation through the reconstruction of cultural heritage in countries of the former Yugoslavia and focuses on the difficulties there. However, through recognizing these difficulties and coming up with opportunities, the results will be implementable in comparable situations and will add to the solution on how rehabilitation in post-war countries can best be achieved.Show less
Many hundreds of brooches from the early medieval period have been recovered by metal detector enthusiasts since the hobby became popular in the 1970's. Much typological work has been completed and...Show moreMany hundreds of brooches from the early medieval period have been recovered by metal detector enthusiasts since the hobby became popular in the 1970's. Much typological work has been completed and some compositional research has already been undertaken for those found in Greater Frisia but not on a large scale. This research undertook the bulk analysis of over 600 copper alloy brooches by handheld XRF and onsite use-wear analysis at repositories in the north of Holland. The compositional analysis subsequently showed regional and chronological differences in the bulk elements as well as clear correlations to typological groups. The analysis produced evidence that Greater Frisia abandoned its tradition of producing brooches in bronze, in favour of production in brass shortly after being annexed into the Carolingian empire in the 8th Century. The morphological analysis also produced evidence of recycling practices and a new interpretation for some cross motifs. These castaways, while lacking the most basic stratigraphical contexts and frequently marginalized in archaeological research, have much more to offer than previously thought.Show less
In the recent decades, the study of the archaeology of ethnicity has become increasingly important throughout the field of archaeology. Many books and articles have been written which address the...Show moreIn the recent decades, the study of the archaeology of ethnicity has become increasingly important throughout the field of archaeology. Many books and articles have been written which address the questions of what is ethnicity, what is an ethnic group, and can we see ethnicity in material culture? Questions pertaining to ethnicity have been of great importance in the archaeology of the Southern Levant as scholars have debated over the ethnic identity and labels of such groups as the Canaanites and Israelites. There is a great debate over the difference between “Canaanite” and “Israelite” material culture, and if these ethnicities can even be seen in the archaeological record. The purpose of this research is to investigate material culture from the Southern Levant during the Iron I Period to see if it truly does represent the ethnicities of “Canaanite” and “Israelite” and if these ethnic labels are correctly attributed to the material culture. I will address two main questions in this research which are: Does material culture represent ethnicity, and should archaeologists apply ethnic labels to material culture? My attempt at answer these questions will be divided into five chapters. In the first chapter, I will present a brief of the history of archaeological investigation in the Southern Levant with it bases in Biblical studies. The second chapter will focus on examining the past and current theories of ethnicity and how these affect our understanding of ethnicity in the archaeological record as well as shaping our current paradigms. Chapter three will be an examination of the specific theories regarding the Canaanite and Israelite identities and how scholars have identified them in the past in the archaeological record and in historical texts. In chapter four, I will present material culture from Iron I strata of two case studies, Beth Shean and Hazor, which have been given by scholars the ethnic labels of Canaanite and Israelite respectively. The focus will be upon certain architectural elements and the ceramic assemblage. Finally, in the fifth chapter, I will critically examine the material culture from Beth Shean and Hazor in light of the theoretical framework established in the prior chapters to determine if the material culture truly can be called ethnically “Canaanite” or Israelite. In this process, I will attempt to answer my two research questions. Thus, the purpose of this research is to critically examine the ethnic labels which have been given to the material culture from the Southern Levant during the Iron I Period.Show less
Few aspects of human agency are as sparsely treated in archaeological literature as the act of human defecation in the Ancient Near East, as only a limited number of toilets have been found and...Show moreFew aspects of human agency are as sparsely treated in archaeological literature as the act of human defecation in the Ancient Near East, as only a limited number of toilets have been found and published. This paucity is unfortunate, as sanitary technology as a phenomenon can have implications for a wide range of human socio-economic behaviour. The scarce literature indicates a predominance of squatting toilets, when compared to seating toilets. Based on an overview of the published toilets, this assumption does not bear out, as an overview of the available data suggests that seating toilets were equally “common”. At the same time toilets were not “common” at all: the large majority of toilets were found in urban and elite contexts. As such, the spread of sanitary technology like toilets and especially sewage systems might be indicative of social complexity, starting in Southern Mesopotamia in the 4th Millennium BC, eventually reaching Syria in the 2nd Millennium BC. In Tell Sabi Abyad toilets have been found in an Assyrian Late Bronze Age fortified estate, a so called dunnu, that was the property of an elite Assyrian family. These are the only toilets in the Ancient Near East that have been so far found outside an urban context. Although the small scale of the settlement does not necessitate toilets, its defensive role might. In addition the toilets may well have been part of the habitus of Assyrian nobility. Remarkably, these toilets stayed in use and were even rebuilt long after the dunnu lost its importance and connection to nobility, indicating an emulation of status behaviour, and a transfer of elite values.Show less
The Horvat Kur stone was found during the 2012 excavation season at Horvat Kur in the Galilee. It was found in secondary use in a stylobate wall of a synagogue. Many questions arose concerning this...Show moreThe Horvat Kur stone was found during the 2012 excavation season at Horvat Kur in the Galilee. It was found in secondary use in a stylobate wall of a synagogue. Many questions arose concerning this unique object. In this thesis I have tried to find answers on these questions and I have offered a first interpretation.Show less
This thesis highlights Baron W.H.J. van Westreenen van Tiellandt (1783-1848) as a collector of antiquities in early nineteenth century Holland. The professionalising of science during the...Show moreThis thesis highlights Baron W.H.J. van Westreenen van Tiellandt (1783-1848) as a collector of antiquities in early nineteenth century Holland. The professionalising of science during the Enlightenment era had a considerable impact on the study of antiquity as well. Take for example Winckelmann’s history of antique art, and the late eighteenth century Altertumswissenschaft incorporating all facets of the classical world (texts, inscriptions and material remains). The latter movement, which also found its way to Holland, strongly contributed to the genesis of the academic archaeological discipline in Leiden in 1818. Moreover, partly due to the Romantic movement in the first half of the nineteenth century and the involvement of institutionalised museums of antiquity, the rather patriotic approach to antiquity gradually took the upper hand over focussing on the splendour of the classical Mediterranean context which had dominated the antiquarian world before. The longstanding humanist tradition of studying classical remains in their native context increasingly gained adherents and was also supported by the first professor of archaeology, C.J.C. Reuvens (1793-1835). But how exactly does Van Westreenen fit as a collector in this fascinating period of shifting receptions of and approaches to antiquity? Although a bibliophile at heart, he was also charmed by classical material culture in general and more specifically, like Reuvens, those unearthed on Dutch soil. In this thesis the involvements of Van Westreenen in the study of the Roman settlement Arentsburg and the Roman fort Brittenburg are treated and compared to Reuvens’, serving as a benchmark of contemporary scientific archaeological research. This study exposes the differences and similarities in their methodology and perception of antiquity and places them in the reshaping political and cultural climate of the early nineteenth century. Finally Van Westreenen’s collecting policy is analysed diachronically, based on his handwritten Catalogue des livres, manuscrits et antiquites. This catalogue describes his acquisitions of 264 Roman antiquities between 1797 and 1835 and allows for a study of Van Westreenen’s underlying rationale of collecting antiquities.Show less
Main goal of the thesis is to investigate the role of basalt in the ceramic technology of cooking pots in the Iron Age Lehun, Mudayna and Tel Yin'am. Assessing that the physical properties of...Show moreMain goal of the thesis is to investigate the role of basalt in the ceramic technology of cooking pots in the Iron Age Lehun, Mudayna and Tel Yin'am. Assessing that the physical properties of basalt are as much suitable as those of calcite, or maybe better, I attempt to confirm and interpret the increasing use of basalt in the Iron Ages at the expense of calcite.Show less
