This thesis gives a detailed overview of the use, production, decoration and iconography of calabashes (Crescentia cujete) and bottle gourds (Lagenaria siceraria) among the Amerindians and Maroons...Show moreThis thesis gives a detailed overview of the use, production, decoration and iconography of calabashes (Crescentia cujete) and bottle gourds (Lagenaria siceraria) among the Amerindians and Maroons of Suriname. This is the first time that such an overview is made for Amerindian calabashes and gourds. Next to that it will also investigate the possible exchange between Amerindians and Maroons in relation to calabashes and bottle gourds, as it can be assumed that these two groups lived in much closer contact than previously thought. Furthermore, it will become clear that these fruits had a much more prominent role in the material culture of pre-Columbian societies. Not only did they serve as model for early pottery, but they were also used alongside their ceramic counterparts. For this research a wide range of sources is used, varying from literature research to museum collections of the National Museum of Ethnology in Leiden and the Stichting Surinaams Museum in Paramaribo which is supplemented with fieldwork in Donderskamp, Konomerume, a Kari’na village along the Wayombo River.Show less
Legislation, both internationally and nationally, on archaeological heritage management is often based on a dominant heritage discourse which focuses on material conservation. However, there are...Show moreLegislation, both internationally and nationally, on archaeological heritage management is often based on a dominant heritage discourse which focuses on material conservation. However, there are multiple heritage discourses and among them those of indigenous peoples. These are based on different perspectives on issues like history, time and landscape and those differences can have major ramifications for views on appropriate management of archaeological sites. As indigenous peoples’ rights are more often being recognised, also within the archaeological discipline, local indigenous communities become involved in heritage management projects. This involvement entails different degrees, from mere presentation to true collaboration and engagement with the indigenous culture. In Bolivia, there have been significant political developments in the last two decades related to indigenous peoples. The question is whether increased rights for indigenous peoples result in challenging the dominant heritage discourse during archaeological heritage management projects. By examining three case studies, it is shown that the level of involvement is not primarily defined by legislation. Bolivian legislation contradicts itself on several points and the enforcement of the law is questioned. Additionally, various other elements have an influence on the level of involvement, such as the personal background of the initiators of the project and the interest the local indigenous community has in the site. Also, the participants of the project have to be motivated to collaborate and have to be open to new perspectives and ideas that might contradict their own.Show less
Abstract: During the last decade an unprecedented amount of excavations of Roman period rural settlements took place in the presumed civitas of the Cananefates, which covers a great part of the...Show moreAbstract: During the last decade an unprecedented amount of excavations of Roman period rural settlements took place in the presumed civitas of the Cananefates, which covers a great part of the modern day Dutch province of Zuid-Holland. A number of these excavations yielded substantial more metal finds than is common for the region, including an unsuspected amount of Roman military equipment and horse gear, a find category that until recently was almost nonexistent in the region. In the neighboring Dutch Eastern River Area, the heartland of the Batavians, Roman military equipment and horse gear from civilian context has always been a prominent find category and has been the subject of extensive research (Nicolay 2007). In order to test some of the ideas from that research, a survey was conducted of all military equipment from the Cananefatian from non military context and held against the existing theories. The comparison yielded some interesting similarities and differences between both regions and provided enough questions to challenge some of the existing theories. Throughout the Roman period differences in horse gear remain very high. However, against expectations for the later periods the Cananefatian region features relatively more military equipment than the Batavian region. This sheds additional light on the questions about the role of the veteran, the pacification of the Rhine frontier and the theory about rearming of the population during the unrest of the 3rd century.Show less
In the summer of 2011, archaeologists from Leiden University excavated the post-Medieval cemetery site of Middenbeemster, the Netherlands. The Middenbeemster skeletal collection provides unique...Show moreIn the summer of 2011, archaeologists from Leiden University excavated the post-Medieval cemetery site of Middenbeemster, the Netherlands. The Middenbeemster skeletal collection provides unique research possibilities due to the availability of detailed historical information on a portion of the excavated individuals. The discovery of a historical map of the cemetery allows for the identification of all individuals buried after 1829, providing age at death, sex, and socioeconomic status. This study applies biomechanical models to cross-sections of human limb bones in order to assess the variability in the habitual activities that were practised by the male and female inhabitants of the Beemster polder from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. Cross-sections were obtained by Computed Tomography Scanning of lower and upper limb bones followed by digital sectioning. By combining historical data and the principles of bone functional adaptation, a reconstruction of life on one of the first polders is attempted. Results show that the presence of a sexual division of labour where the males were generally more mobile than females, and performed more strenuous manual activities. The males were very similar in limb bone strength and shape, but the female sample showed a high amount of variability. While a portion of the females were relatively gracile, other females showed very robust lower and upper limb bones indicating high mobility and strenuous manual labour. This indicates that economic roles were not the same for all females in the seventeenth to nineteenth century Beemster polder. The current study represents the first time that cross-sectional geometric analysis has been applied to a Dutch archaeological population. The results obtained from the current study are therefore a valuable contribution to the international fields of bioarchaeology and biological anthropology.Show less
In 1933 the so-called chieftain’s burial of Oss was found. It dates from the Early Iron Age, or Hallstatt C-period, in the second half of the 7th century BC. This rich grave, of which the cremation...Show moreIn 1933 the so-called chieftain’s burial of Oss was found. It dates from the Early Iron Age, or Hallstatt C-period, in the second half of the 7th century BC. This rich grave, of which the cremation rests and grave goods were deposited in a bronze situla, included different imported artefacts from Central Europe. In the 1960’s it became clear that a number of these objects were parts of horse gear. In the past decades, all the objects from the chieftain’s grave of Oss have been published. Nevertheless, these publications generally only included a description of the finds. Function, context, and an analysis of the objects are now presented within this thesis for the first time. All objects from Oss that can be assigned as horse gear are described together with typological parallels and their distribution throughout Europe. Oss contains components of two bridles and a yoke. It is now clear that most parallels of the objects are found in Bohemia, Bavaria and the area north of the Alps. A total of 13 object-categories of horse gear, dating from the Hallstatt C-period, have been used for a statistical analysis. It compares the inventory of the horse gear from Oss with that of 59 others. It is now evident that the inventory of Oss includes relatively many object-categories. About 80% of the other inventories contained less. It can therefore be concluded that the inventory of Oss is one of the richest in its kind. The most common objects are the bits and cheek-pieces. The experience of three equestrian professionals was used for a contemporary approach on the horse gear from Oss. New technical aspects came to light: the grooves on the bars of the bits are functional. They are not cruel, as sometimes is stated. Some horses play more with such a bit in their mouth and therefore accept them more easily. Furthermore, because of the grooves more saliva is produced. Finally, old reconstructions of Hallstatt C-bridles do not attribute any technical function to the curved ends of the cheek-pieces. Within this thesis a new reconstruction of the bridle has been made which includes a functional element of the cheek-pieces: they could have been used for the attachment of reins. This was also underlined by the comments of the equestrian professionals.Show less
Trade is seen by most archaeologist, working with Medieval Southeast Asia, as the main reason for economic development and social interaction. However, through a study of the archaeological and...Show moreTrade is seen by most archaeologist, working with Medieval Southeast Asia, as the main reason for economic development and social interaction. However, through a study of the archaeological and historical material in Cambodia that impression is challenged. The presently known archaeological data in fact suggest that international trade was limited; Chinese ceramics seems to have been restricted, The Kingdom had no currency or standardized values and Cambodian exports are few and only found in the neighboring countries (provinces). The academic emphasis on trade has instead relied on historical sources, however,the interpretation of these seems to be embedded in a post WW II economic theoretical bias (Marxism & Cliometrics). The thesis questions the relevance of modern economic logic in the past and the significance trade had in Medieval Cambodia, both socially and economically.Show less
This study focuses on illegal excavation as a threat to underwater cultural heritage in the Netherlands. More specifically, it deals with enforcement of legal protection of the Dutch underwater...Show moreThis study focuses on illegal excavation as a threat to underwater cultural heritage in the Netherlands. More specifically, it deals with enforcement of legal protection of the Dutch underwater cultural heritage against the destructive effects of illegal excavation, whether by recreational divers or by professional salvors, to shipwrecks and other archaeological remains underwater. It aims to provide an overview of the enforcement practices currently in operation under the 1988 Monuments and Historical Buildings Act in the inner waters, the terrestrial sea and the contiguous zone of the Netherlands. As a result, Article 45 of the Act, providing a prohibition on illegal excavation, plays a key role. Furthermore, it aims to provide suggestions for improvement of the current enforcement mechanism in a time of turbulent developments within the underwater domain. This is established by means of an analysis of available literature and interviews with governmental stakeholder organizations which are involved in the protection of underwater cultural heritage in daily practice.Show less
The Bandkeramik culture came to the Netherlands as a complete package. This new culture settled itself at the Graetheide plateau in the south of the Netherlands on the fertile loess grounds. Geleen...Show moreThe Bandkeramik culture came to the Netherlands as a complete package. This new culture settled itself at the Graetheide plateau in the south of the Netherlands on the fertile loess grounds. Geleen-Janskamperveld is one of these Bandkeramik settlements. All aspects of the Bandkeramik culture are very similar between the different settlements so models are very suitable to analyzee the Bandkeramik culture. One of these aspects which has different models, is the settlement structure. The Hofplatz model is used for centuries as the main model for the Bandkeramik culture. Within this model clusters of houses represent successive houses and thus continuity on a single location. There is still some disagreement whether one or several houses were in use at one time within such a cluster. Rück proposed a different model in which the settlement is structured along lines. He also proposed a different reconstruction of the houses and he assumes a longer use-life for the individual houses: up till a 100 years instead of the 25 years which is used most. Within this research a use-wear study of the flint artefacts found at Geleen-Janskamperveld is executed with the hope of finding some specialization between different houses. This information could help with finding which of these models is best suitable for this excavation. Some use-wear study was already done in the past. The results of the previous study are used for this new research. The predominant contact material found at Geleen-Janskamperveld is hide, followed by cereal harvesting tools. This is in line with other Bandkeramik sites in the Netherlands which were studied in the same way. Other contact materials like wood, reed, bark, meat, bone, clay, mineral materials and the mysterious contact materials which produces ‘polish 10’ and ‘polish 23’ were also recognised. Unfortunately no real specialization was found between the different houses of Geleen-Janskamperveld. The rest of the analysis therefore is based on the literature. Rück proposed new models for different aspects of the settlement. He argues that houses were built on poles instead of on the ground. His main argument, steep slopes on which the houses were built in Bandkeramik times, is not valid for the Dutch LBK. His argument about the duration of a house generation is more plausible. The old arguments for a house generation are a bit outdated. Houses probably would have last longer. A visual analysis is executed to find possible settlement structures at Geleen-Janskamperveld. This resulted in several maps which clearly show that the model of Rück is not plausible for this excavation. No real alignments are apparent. A model in which clusters of several houses success each other is more plausible. This is supported by other features such as ditches.Show less
The main subject of this thesis is the research of traditional pottery workshops in present-day Egypt. Pottery workshops producing pottery in a traditional way are disappearing due to several...Show moreThe main subject of this thesis is the research of traditional pottery workshops in present-day Egypt. Pottery workshops producing pottery in a traditional way are disappearing due to several factors discussed in this thesis. The author decided to study a selection of workshops in Egypt, covering a large part of the Nile Valley: in the Fustat area in Cairo, in the Fayum, at Deir Mawas, and in the Qena-Ballas area. The research is intended to document one of the aspects of the heritage of Egypt on the one hand. On the other hand, the description of the workshops also serves ethnoarchaeological research. By creating a general view of the workshops, the information gathered with the descriptions, can be used to interpret archaeological remains of pottery workshops. As a framework to the description of the workshops a chapter is devoted to the production technologies of pottery, the so-called chaîne d’opératoire, to understand the activities usually occurring in a workshop. After that, the practice of studying pottery is discussed with special focus on ethnoarchaeological research as one of the possible study methods. The description of the workshops covers the largest part of this thesis. Every area is described in a separate chapter and per workshop the production technologies and the spatial distribution of the activities within the workshop are described. The layout and architecture of the workshops are treated as well. After that, one chapter is concerned with the comparison of the workshops in order to create a general view of the workshops and the activities therein. From this general discussion it becomes clear that the activities are conducted in the most convenient location in or outside the workshop. Also, certain features and activities appear to have a fixed location within a workshop, while others are not allocated in a specific area. The use of this general view of workshops in present-day Egypt to interpret archaeological remains is tested in a case study of site O45.1 in el-Amarna. The remains in this area have been identified as pottery workshops and will be compared to the general plan of the workshops created in this thesis. As the archaeological remains appeared to be scarce, it proved to be difficult to interpret the architecture and layout of the workshops and the activities conducted in the workshops as well as their distribution. The general description of the present-day workshops can then be used to fill in the gaps of the remains of the past as will become clear after the evaluation. Therefore, in the opinion of the author, the description of the workshops is necessary to document the heritage of Egypt as well as to aid archaeologists in interpreting the subject of their research.Show less
This thesis aims to balance the lack of published data on flint finds from Dutch megalithic monuments, the hunebedden, that were built during the Middle Neolithic. Technological and typological...Show moreThis thesis aims to balance the lack of published data on flint finds from Dutch megalithic monuments, the hunebedden, that were built during the Middle Neolithic. Technological and typological aspects from hunebed D19, D26, G2 and G3 are described in detail, considering the entire flint assemblages, not only focussing on formal tools. Results from use wear analysis of a selection of objects from these sites are included. The representativity of these four sites is assessed by a small-scale literature survey describing the flint finds from eleven other megaliths although data other than a typological description is scarce. The results of the study of the archaeological material and the literature survey are contextualized by comparing it to several other contexts: other TRB-sites (flat graves, settlements, hoards), development of burial conventions into the Late Neolithic and a modest description of megalithic research in northern Europe. This research leads to the conclusion that the set of items that is included in a hunebed is fairly wide when compared to TRB flat graves as well as graves from later periods. Some items show traces of use from varying activities but most pieces seem to be deposited unused. Since the assemblages contain many flakes and numerous technological indicators for flint-working, flint-knapping probably took place at the megaliths. Some artefacts, like certain transverse arrowheads, were most likely not made for actual use but especially for deposition in the megalith. Polished flint axes form a separate category; they are heavily used and were in numerous cases carefully resharpened before deposition in the megalith.Show less
In the German town of Schöningen (Niedersachsen, Germany) several Middle Pleistocene sites have been found and excavated since 1992. These sites are named Schöningen 12B, Schöningen 13I and...Show moreIn the German town of Schöningen (Niedersachsen, Germany) several Middle Pleistocene sites have been found and excavated since 1992. These sites are named Schöningen 12B, Schöningen 13I and Schöningen 13II. The latter has been the focus of research since wooden spears of Palaeolithic man were found there among the remains of butchered horses. Schöningen 13II consists of five different levels named Schöningen 13II-1 to 13II-5, which are dated to the newly defined Reinsdorf Interglacial. For this thesis the large mammal remains found in the oldest levels Schöningen 13II-1, 13II-2 and 13II-3 have been determined and analysed. The bones have been assigned to species of the suborder Caniformia, the wolf Canis lupus, species of the family Elephantidae, the Mosbach horse Equus mosbachensis, the forest rhino Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis, the steppe rhino Stephanorhinus hemitoechus, the wild boar Sus scrofa, the red deer Cervus elaphus, the giant deer Megaloceros giganteus, the roe deer Capreolus capreolus and species of the genus Bos/Bison, the bones of which belong to either the aurochs Bos primigenius or the steppe bison Bison priscus. The large mammal species of Schö 13II-1, 13II-2 and 13II-3 determined by previous researchers, have been added to the analyses for completeness. In addition to the aforementioned species, these researchers have determined species of the family Mustelidae, including the ermine Mustela erminea, a Mustela species and a Martes species, and species of the family Bovidae, including Bos primigenius and Bison priscus. The previously analysed faunal assemblage from level Schöningen 13II-4 has been added to the palaeoecological and biostratigraphic analyses as well. The large mammals have been used to reconstruct the palaeoecology during the Reinsdorf Interglacial. The animals represent a warm temperate climate and the presence of a forest steppe environment in Schöningen 13II-1, the climatic optimum, with increasingly cooler conditions up to level Schöningen 13II-4, in which the wooden spears were encountered. These results are in accordance with the palaeobotanical data of the Schöningen 13II levels. Considering the taphonomic state of the bones it appears that these are very well preserved, whilst all skeletal elements are more or less equally represented. Unfortunately the presence of human cutmarks has been difficult to establish, only two indeterminate bone fragments certainly display cutmarks. The fauna therefore consisted of natural populations which might occasionally have been hunted and butchered by hominids. Gnawing traces of a rodent are present on a radius of Bos/Bison. The mammalian compositions of the Schöningen 13II levels have been compared with those from other Middle Pleistocene sites in Germany and Great Britain. The Schöningen 13II compositions bear most resemblance to the faunal assemblages from Bilzingsleben II and Swanscombe, attributed to MIS 11. It follows that according to the large mammal fauna the Reinsdorf Interglacial should be attributed to MIS 11 as well, and is thus of Holsteinian age.Show less
Śriwijaya was a kingdom on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia between 600 and 1400 A.D. It was discovered in 1918 in written records of Sumatran, Indian, Arabian and Chinese origin by Georges Coèdes....Show moreŚriwijaya was a kingdom on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia between 600 and 1400 A.D. It was discovered in 1918 in written records of Sumatran, Indian, Arabian and Chinese origin by Georges Coèdes. The records portrait Śriwijaya as a thalassocracy, a strong maritime empire that controlled the Straits of Malacca. In the last ten to twenty years, the image of Śriwijaya as a strong maritime thalassocracy, with a powerful navy, international trade and little contact with its hinterland as parameters, is falling apart. Archaeological excavations and surveys reveal no strong maritime empire, but polities or kingdoms, on Sumatra only and not polities across the Straits of Malacca. Almost all the archaeological data gathered in this thesis of the provinces of South-Sumatra and Jambi on Sumatra is placed in the context of the peer polity interaction theory and the mandala theory. A closer look at the archaeological data, together with the written records, to prove Śriwijaya did not last more than six centuries. It appears that the first polity of Śriwijaya was the polity at Palembang, South-Sumatra from roughly 650 to 1025 A.D, and the second polity of Śriwijaya was the polity at Jambi, Jambi from 1079 to 1400 A.D. The Cola raid in 1025 A.D. at Palembang shifted the capital of Śriwijaya to Jambi to maintain better contact with its hinterland by means of the Batang Hari river, for products such as gold, tin and non-timber forest products to reach the international market through Śriwijaya. Written records change when the capital shifted. Epigraphical sources on Sumatra on Śriwijaya dissappear, and its name changes in Chinese records. Despite the fact archaeological data reveals no strong thalassocracy, but instead reveals trade polities with good contact with their hinterland to maintain their trade products on which the international market depends, the image of Śriwijaya as a thalassocracy remains alive, by old epigraphical and other written records together with nation-building and Cultural Tourism by the Indonesian government. Future research should focus on the archaeological differences in material culture between Palembang and Jambi to define if Śriwijaya lasted over six centuries or if it was only the early polity at Palembang, where the polity at Jambi was different than its predecessor.Show less
