This essay is a humble contribution to the great and exciting project of reconciling science with the immediate, sentient experience of life. It offers a critique of the physicalist outlook on mind...Show moreThis essay is a humble contribution to the great and exciting project of reconciling science with the immediate, sentient experience of life. It offers a critique of the physicalist outlook on mind, from an intercultural- philosophical perspective, arguing that an ontology of the mind- world relationship, as it is present in Husserlian Phenomenology and Buddhist Philosophy describes reality more accurately than the Physicalist- Cognitivist theory of mind. Our discussion is not limited to philosophical discourse, but includes recent research from Biology and cognitive science, notably from Humberto Maturana, Francisco Varela, Eleanor Rosch and Evan Thompson, which is placed in the context of our philosophico- phenomenological investigation. Firstly, we clarify how the physicalist paradigm developed throughout the history of the natural sciences, from the emergence of the idea of a causally closed, mind- independent world onwards, terminating in the influence it came to have on scientific practise in cognitive science and Psychology. Afterwards we elucidate the core metaphysical assumptions, which underlie a physicalist understanding of mind. This serves as a preparation to disclose the anomalies and errors of the current paradigm in the mainstream branches of the sciences of mind. Showing how a physicalist understanding of mind fails to sufficiently explain the transformative capabilities of the human mind, from a scientific perspective, we move on to a phenomenological critique. We discuss Husserl’s demonstration that all science is fundamentally grounded in phenomenal experience, which implies that a scientific understanding of mind must be grounded in intersubjective experience, not in an idealized model of a mind- independent external world. As an alternative to a physicalist understanding of mind, we look at a phenomenological understanding of mind, inspired by Husserlian and Buddhist philosophy. This alternative paradigm accounts for the problems which a physicalist understanding of mind fails to address and considers the grounded- ness of science in the background of lived, phenomenal experience without losing in scientific rigour.Show less
In deze scriptie wordt de conventionele conceptualisatie van eenzaamheid onder de loep gelegd. Vanuit een analyse van o.a. het Zelf en de Ander en het Jungiaanse onbewuste wordt een nieuwe,...Show moreIn deze scriptie wordt de conventionele conceptualisatie van eenzaamheid onder de loep gelegd. Vanuit een analyse van o.a. het Zelf en de Ander en het Jungiaanse onbewuste wordt een nieuwe, positievere, definitie van eenzaamheid gevormd waarbij eenzaamheid een kans tot zelfactualisatie kan bieden.Show less
In the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanişad two female philosophers participate in debates whose voices are part of the intellectual narrative constructed in the text. This paper will try to understand how...Show moreIn the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanişad two female philosophers participate in debates whose voices are part of the intellectual narrative constructed in the text. This paper will try to understand how these two female scholars, Maitreyi and Gargi, are integrated into this predominantly male narrative. These two women are alone in an intellectual environment of men and this paper will seek to understand how their gender influences their philosophy. This paper is an exploration of female voices, their talents and unique contributions. We will argue that by granting these characters and their distinctive ways of debating a stage, we can highlight their importance within a classic text as the Upanişads, and also within the contemporary academy. This paper will first explore the character Maitreyi. After a summary and brief analysis of her dialogue with Yājñavalkya, we will explain the significance of Maitreyi’s femininity, which manifests in her role as a wife. In a second chapter, we will focus on Gargi by briefly summarizing and interpreting her dialogues. This will be followed by a study of the relevance of gender for the figure of Gargi who rhetorically reverses her gender and debates in innovative ways. The paper will close with a third chapter aimed at presenting and critiquing past academic readings of the figures and arguing for the importance of giving these characters a voice within a male narrative. This paper will seek to demonstrate the different ways in which gender influences the women’s dialogues: While her femaleness grants Maitreyi access to an intimate discussion with her husband, it allows Gargi to employ innovative debating techniques, setting her apart from her fellow debaters. We will argue, refuting interpretations by Ranade and Madhavananda who present Gargi as superficial and chatty, that Gargi and Maitreyi deserve to be respected and placed in the spotlight due to their innovative perspective, their passion and their special access to the debates that distinguish them and are rooted in their gender. Show less
Philosophy and human thought are replete with mutually exclusive dualism. As a result, our understanding of reality is limited and our use of conceptual language is dangerously misconstrued. In...Show morePhilosophy and human thought are replete with mutually exclusive dualism. As a result, our understanding of reality is limited and our use of conceptual language is dangerously misconstrued. In pursuit of a solution to this problem, this thesis asks how it has been apprehended by two very different traditions: that of Jacques Derrida and Buddhism. More specifically, I discuss Derrida’s semiotic theory of deconstruction known as différance, in order to broach the apparent linguistic aspect to the problem of duality. On the other hand, I explicate a variety of Buddhist doctrine in order to discuss the problem as seen through the ideas of Kyoto School Zen scholars, especially Nishida Kitarō. In line with these thinkers, I first highlight their acknowledgement of the problem of duality, before asking to what extent it actually is problematic. These implications will hopefully become clearer after I discuss the contextual scope of both traditions, which precedes an illustration of their respective theoretical approaches. Furthermore, I introduce an additional consideration pertaining to the problem of duality: the risk of re-reification. By discussing this sub-problem through the eyes of Derrida and Buddhists, I explore the idea of a middle way. Finally, I ask what a meaningful and applicable solution to the problem of duality might look like, by entertaining Victor Hori’s notion of non-duality. As such, this project seeks not only to provide a solution to the problem of duality, but also shows how intercultural philosophy allows for constructive dialogues between cultures.Show less
This paper sheds light on the fallacies and deficiencies underlying historicist methodology in the field of historiography. Through a case study of the canon of East African colonial history it is...Show moreThis paper sheds light on the fallacies and deficiencies underlying historicist methodology in the field of historiography. Through a case study of the canon of East African colonial history it is demonstrated that historicists methodology, which takes written documentation as the prime source of historical evidence, fails to adequately reconstruct a truthful, multifaceted and inclusive picture of East African colonial history as much of East African history is transmitted orally rather than in print. The historicists' erroneous claim to objectivity, scientific predictability and universal truths based on findings in written primary sources, is deconstructed by use of an alternative historiographical methodology: New Historicism. This paper shows how oral sources can be adequately historicised through a New Historicist lens, thus granting more complete narratives of East African colonial history. In short, it will be argued that the existing documentation of East African colonial history fails to adequately historicise the narratives of local subjectivities (the actual people who experienced colonial oppression) due to Eurocentric overemphasis on the appropriation of written sources rather than incorporating and establishing the value of the many ‘local subjective narratives’ preserved in oral traditions.Show less
This thesis shall examine two conceptions of justice, proposed by Rawls and Young respectively, and the society that flows from said conceptions, in order to evaluate them and conclude that they...Show moreThis thesis shall examine two conceptions of justice, proposed by Rawls and Young respectively, and the society that flows from said conceptions, in order to evaluate them and conclude that they are not able to resolve and prevent injustices. These philosophers are the focus of this thesis as they both attempt to measure and resolve injustice, with Rawls focused on equality and distributive issues whilst Young takes an approach based on resolving oppression by respecting group differences. Existing debates in political philosophy can largely be separated into two categories. Arguably the biggest debates are to be found in the category in which Young’s and Rawls’s work can also be found, revolving around the question of what the best possible society would look like. These discussions, however, assume that there is a satisfying answer to debates that fall in the other category, which includes all discussions surrounding the question of whether states are or can be good at all. By evaluating the societies proposed by Rawls and Young this thesis is situated in the first category of discussion, though avoids the assumption that a state is good or justifiable. Instead, this thesis will attempt to bridge the gap between the discussions by noting the injustices caused by these proposed systems of government, opening the door for the inclusion of anarchist philosophy in discussions about the best possible way to order a society.Show less
Moral disagreement strikes a deep philosophical nerve and is discussed intensively in metaethical literature, often in relation to the ‘argument from disagreement’. The family of arguments from...Show moreMoral disagreement strikes a deep philosophical nerve and is discussed intensively in metaethical literature, often in relation to the ‘argument from disagreement’. The family of arguments from disagreement establishes the existence of moral disagreement to subsequently draw certain skeptical conclusions about morality and moral practice. Such arguments are often used to argue against the supposed existence of objective moral truths. This thesis answers the question ‘What is the strongest version of the argument from disagreement against the objectivity of morality?’ by evaluating the argument’s inferential structure and the characteristics of the utilized disagreement and concludes that the strongest argument from disagreement would be one that argues deductively from faultless disagreement.Show less
In this thesis I will examine the plausibility of the independence thesis concerning the relation between jus ad bellum and jus in bello, by studying the concomitant principle of the moral equality...Show moreIn this thesis I will examine the plausibility of the independence thesis concerning the relation between jus ad bellum and jus in bello, by studying the concomitant principle of the moral equality of combatants. With Walzer defending the principle and McMahan denying it, I will argue that McMahan’s denial of the moral equality of combatants and consequently the independence thesis, ultimately relies on his account of moral responsibility for individuals in domestic society, which cannot be properly applied to combatants during war. As such, McMahan’s denial of the moral equality of combatants becomes invalid and with it, his denial of the independence thesis. In doing so, my thesis will add to the ongoing debate between the two philosophers and test the validity of their positions, which have been very influential within the field of the ethics of war, to hopefully come closer to resolving the still relevant debate.Show less
This thesis entails a dialogue between Foucauldian- and Confucian philosophy. Although at first sight rather different, these two thinkers both share a concern for human conduct and its origins. By...Show moreThis thesis entails a dialogue between Foucauldian- and Confucian philosophy. Although at first sight rather different, these two thinkers both share a concern for human conduct and its origins. By means of discipline and etiquette, human behavior is sculpted and influenced; this thesis argues for a world in which we pay attention to Confucian etiquette and Foucauldian discipline to better understand our own social behavior, and that of others. This thesis aims at providing a place for both these phenomena and its advocates to interlock.Show less
Nowadays a lot of people have existential crises. They ask themselves: Why am I here? What is the meaning of life? Why must I suffer this existence? Their question reflects an age old question:...Show moreNowadays a lot of people have existential crises. They ask themselves: Why am I here? What is the meaning of life? Why must I suffer this existence? Their question reflects an age old question: suffering for what? They fall prey to nihilistic tendencies, a loss of all meaning. A pain, a depression, a pessimism that they do not seem to be able to shake. They lack the strength of Atlas, who carried the world on his shoulders. The burdens of the earth too heavy for them to bear. Taking life serious is a massive mountain weighing upon one’s shoulders. I want to release these darkened souls of humanity from the anchor that keeps them from lifting up to the lightness of the clouds and teach them of the laughter of the child. By reading Nietzsche's 'Genealogy of Morality' through the 'metamorphosis of Zarathustra' I want to show how the metaphor of 'the Child' is able to combat and overcome the nihilism, that Nietzsche speaks of in the Genealogy, through the act of not-taking-serious, or even more so, making-fun-of any form of nihilism. When we understand the steps of the metamorphosis, the reading of the Genealogy of Morality will become clearer. Not only will this provide us with a deeper insight into the Genealogy, but it will also offer us the necessary tools to extend beyond the conclusion of the Genealogy of Morality. This conclusion being: “to conclude by saying what I said at the beginning: man still prefers to will nothingness, than not will at all. . .” It is in this conclusion that we find the importance of this thesis. The genealogy of morality ends up finding ‘the will to nothingness’, or ‘nihilism’, the conclusion that there is no meaning to be found in the universe. Yet, the genealogy offers no real salvation to overcoming this will to nothingness. It is through the metamorphosis that we can find this overcoming of the great danger to mankind, its most sublime temptation and seduction. It is through the metamorphosis that we can combat standstill, mankind looking back wearily, turning its will against life, and the onset of the final sickness becoming gently, sadly manifest. By reading the genealogy of morality through the metamorphosis of Zarathustra I will be able to go beyond Nietzsche’s teachings and show that the not-taking-serious, which I view as the most important aspect of the child, combats nihilism. To do this we first have to understand the three metamorphoses. In the second part, I will explain the genealogy of morality through the metamorphosis. In the last part, I will argue how the child is able to overcome the nihilism in the genealogy of morality.Show less
In this paper, I criticize a common feature found in theories of moral responsibility, namely that moral responsibility (MR) is supposed to be a property of agents. It shall be argued that MR...Show moreIn this paper, I criticize a common feature found in theories of moral responsibility, namely that moral responsibility (MR) is supposed to be a property of agents. It shall be argued that MR should instead be thought of as a different type of quality. On my account, moral responsibility is an attribute that can be correctly ascribed to agents. I establish firstly four desiderata used to evaluate the adequacy of any theory of moral responsibility. Using these, I argue that neither libertarian nor compatibilist theories of free will provide a sure bulwark of moral responsibility as a property. This, combined with the rationale involving the problematic nature of this property, leads me to a conclusion similar to that of the hard determinist: the property of moral responsibility cannot exist. However, in order to avoid responsibility nihilism that follows from this moral responsibility scepticism, I propose that MR may exist as an attribute that can be correctly ascribed to human and non-human agents by following fair rules. Finally, I opt to explain why such account of attributive moral responsibility (AMR) provides a more adequate response to the desiderata than rival accounts.Show less
This thesis focuses on the sharp tension between the concept of wuwei Laozi uses in his Daoism and the virtue of li which is of great importance in the philosophy of Confucius. The two concepts...Show moreThis thesis focuses on the sharp tension between the concept of wuwei Laozi uses in his Daoism and the virtue of li which is of great importance in the philosophy of Confucius. The two concepts clash heavily on the notions of striving, sponteinity and value distinctions.Show less
The Confucian claim that we are not born as persons but that we must become persons highlights the importance of individual human experiences in relation to a larger global and collective network....Show moreThe Confucian claim that we are not born as persons but that we must become persons highlights the importance of individual human experiences in relation to a larger global and collective network. The way we perceive and act as persons in a society is shaped by the relationships we develop with others. This implies that the individual can never abstract himself entirely from his socio-historical context. However, the dominant interpretation of personhood seems to draw heavily on Kantian ideas, which are supposed to be in opposition with the Confucian social self. Namely, the Kantian ideal model is a free, autonomous and rational individual for whom self-legislation is the essential human achievement. In my thesis, I attempt to offer a comprehensive analysis and reconceptualization of personhood by borrowing from the Confucian notion of a relational person. Firstly, I will highlight the dominant Kantian conception of what it means to be an individual person within society. In doing so, I will depict certain characteristics of the rational individual and how they are reproduced in the process of grounding universal moral laws. Secondly, I will demonstrate that this view of personhood is to some extent problematic because it advocates an disembodied moral agent by undermining the importance of empirical and socio-historical influences. Thus, I will attempt to reconnect the individual within the social realm through the Confucian perspective on personhood. Namely, the concept of person implies the self in relation to others rather than a radical separation between them. The exemplary person (junzi) cultivates his heart-mind (xin) by developing filial piety (xiao) and benevolence (ren) which are expressed through the practice of rituals(li). These interrelated concepts depict a relational person who occupies certain roles in society based on the multiplicity and diversity of his relationships with other human beings. Finally, the important question is: To what extent is the Confucian relational self relevant in reconceptualizing the Kantian notion of personhood? I will argue that it is necessary to offer an all-encompassing view on personhood by opening up a dialogue between these two traditions. In order to do so, I will reject the presupposed fundamental dichotomy between the Kantian Western perspective and Confucianism. Comparing and connecting their main concepts allows me to expand the meaning of personhood and illustrate its complexities without completely refuting the Kantian individual or adapting the Confucian model in its totality. On one hand, Kant invites us to critically challenge past traditions and social norms by cultivating our abilities to think and reason for ourselves, while this capacity might be limited in Confucian thought. On the other hand, from the Confucian person we can learn how to understand ourselves and our connections with others in a growing social networkShow less
In 1960 Eugene Wigner wrote the famous article: “The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in The Natural Sciences”. Here Wigner claims mathematics is the star of the show in natural science,...Show moreIn 1960 Eugene Wigner wrote the famous article: “The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in The Natural Sciences”. Here Wigner claims mathematics is the star of the show in natural science, as mathematical formulations lead to amazing and accurate descriptions of a large class of phenomena. Mathematical concepts, although invented in isolation from the natural sciences, are effective ‘beyond all reasonable explanation’. This effectiveness has puzzled commentators ever since. But Wigner seems to presuppose a fairly simplistic relation between mathematics and the natural world: the effectiveness of the application of mathematics to the world can be immediately interpreted as effectiveness of mathematics itself. But is it indeed that simple? Should we not pay more attention to the process of application itself?Show less
How are we supposed to solve overpopulation? Some state that utilitarianism is the right ethical theory that might provide us a solution for the problem. However, this ethical theory deals with...Show moreHow are we supposed to solve overpopulation? Some state that utilitarianism is the right ethical theory that might provide us a solution for the problem. However, this ethical theory deals with many implication, such as allowing procreation of lives that are barely worth living. In this thesis I solved this implication by applying the Golden Mean, which provided us a certain condition for procreation.Show less
