Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
open access
The construction of signs in the linguistic landscape (henceforth LL) of a given territory is driven by different reasons, and it can reflect upon an area's cultural, social, political, and...Show moreThe construction of signs in the linguistic landscape (henceforth LL) of a given territory is driven by different reasons, and it can reflect upon an area's cultural, social, political, and economic circumstances. The COVID-19 pandemic that influenced all countries in the year 2020 has kept a common and stable topic for many signs, which provides a unique opportunity to conduct a comparative LL study. The current study investigates COVID-19 related signs displayed on public transport, shop windows, city noticeboards, inside museums and churches in France, Italy, and the Netherlands. By conducting a mixed-method comparative study in three European countries that were (and still are) affected by the pandemic to different degrees, this study contributes to detecting how their multilingual status, identities, cultural values, and socio-political differences are constructed through a combination of linguistic and visual/multimodal representations, using LL signs as a relevant dataset. The data include 766 COVID-19 related signs collected from July to September 2020, in densely populated, urban areas of France, Italy, and the Netherlands. The quantitative and qualitative results show that monolingual ideologies prevail in France, in line with the country's long-lasting "one nation, one language" policy known as "the Toubon Law". The French signs heavily emphasized the importance of following the rules for the sake of safety and public health as well as illustrated the Parisian identity as a fashion hub. France also had the highest number of multimodal signs, showing a greater focus on visual representation to get important messages across during the pandemic. Italy featured a fair amount of English influence on LL signs, which may reflect the importance of tourism to economic recovery in the summer of 2020. A trademark of the Italian data were the many unique and humorous signs, which, alongside the low percentage of government-created signs used during COVID-19, reflect the cultural values of the country (use of humour in response to adverse conditions, preference for individual efforts, distrust of government). The Netherlands featured the highest proportion of English influence in LL signs, in line with the country's high proficiency in English. Minority languages spoken by large immigrant communities were better represented in the Netherlands, showcasing its linguistic and ethnic diversity. Solidarity, collective action and cooperation were emphasized in many COVID-19 related signs, illustrating Dutch cultural values and the fact that people in the Netherlands may have more trust in their government compared with France and Italy.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
open access
The Highland East Cushitic language Dhaashatee (often referred to as “Burji”) has two ways of marking the nominative on common nouns: (1) the “long nominative”, marked by the suffixes -ku (m) and ...Show moreThe Highland East Cushitic language Dhaashatee (often referred to as “Burji”) has two ways of marking the nominative on common nouns: (1) the “long nominative”, marked by the suffixes -ku (m) and -shi (f), and (2) the “short nominative”, marked by the suffix -i (m) or vowel shortening (f). In past publications, the usage of the two forms has been linked to definiteness. However, different authors do not agree as to which nominative is definite and which one is indefinite. The goal of the present study was to shed more light on the conditions that determine the choice of one or the other nominative in stories. For the bulk of the data, previous hypotheses have been confirmed according to which modified subjects are marked by the short nominative, while unmodified ones are marked by the long one. Yet, the choice of the nominative is not only based on syntactic principles, but also on discourse-related ones – i.e. whether a participant is newly introduced or re-appears. Thus, an unmodified subject may be marked by the short nominative if the referent has appeared in the story before, while a modified subject may be marked by the long nominative if it appears for the first time. What requires further research is the question under which conditions the discourse-related principle may override the syntactic one.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
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This thesis investigated the cognitive and neurological processes used to recognize visually presented words in a second language. In this study, Dutch second language learners of Russian and...Show moreThis thesis investigated the cognitive and neurological processes used to recognize visually presented words in a second language. In this study, Dutch second language learners of Russian and native speakers of Russian participated in a lexical decision task. Stimuli consisted of visually presented letter/character strings which increasingly deviated from existing Russian words. ERP measurements together with behavioural responses (error rates and reaction times) were recorded and analyzed.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
open access
This thesis is about Dutch prepositional phrases (PPs) headed by the preposition aan ‘on, at, to’, which generally denote locations, but are also regularly used in a ‘non-locational’ sense....Show moreThis thesis is about Dutch prepositional phrases (PPs) headed by the preposition aan ‘on, at, to’, which generally denote locations, but are also regularly used in a ‘non-locational’ sense. Specifically, this thesis concerns the second, ‘non-locational’ group, which is termed ‘situational’ because on closer inspection, they do denote not locations but situations. These 'situational aan-PPs' have a fixed structure: the preposition aan, followed by a definite article, and finally either an infinitive, verb stem or a noun as aan's complement. The first pattern, paired with the verb zijn 'to be', has been characterized in previous work as a ‘progressive construction’. This raises two questions: what exactly is progressive aspect, and how do the different verbs and complements that occur in the situational aan-PPs differ conceptually from that analysis? To answer these questions, an attempt is made at teasing apart the concepts constitutive of ‘progressivity’. There turn out to be four core components: temporal decomposability, dynamicity, boundary effectuation by the subject, and non-gnomicity. Next, the possible verbs (e.g. zijn 'to be', gaan 'to go', krijgen 'to obtain') and complements (i.e. infinitive, stem and noun) are analyzed in terms of these four components. For the complements, the four components turn out to be sufficient to distinguish them semantically: all three of them may exhibit the full, quadripartite 'progressive cluster', but infinitives do not require the effectuation of boundaries, verb stems do not exclude gnomic interpretations, and nouns strictly impose neither of these restrictions. The three complements do impose, by definition, temporal decomposability and dynamicity, which can therefore be seen as situational aan-PPs’ conceptual core. Regarding the verbs, at least eight features are relevant, including decomposability and boundary effectuation, but also (among others) causativity, continuativity and modality. These properties are contributed by the verbs, which are thus to a greater or lesser degree compatible with the conceptual structure of each of the complements. The main outcome of this thesis is a more integrated and precise account of situational aan-PPs, making it possible to gain a broader understanding of the well-known progressive construction 'zijn aan het + infinitive'. That broader understanding also sheds some light on the way that the expression of aspect is organized in Dutch. This thesis adds to the impression that this organization may be more systematic than is generally assumed.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
open access
Existing didactic and academic materials on Korean phonology often (partly) reason from written to spoken language or are difficult for second-language learners to understand. This thesis attempts...Show moreExisting didactic and academic materials on Korean phonology often (partly) reason from written to spoken language or are difficult for second-language learners to understand. This thesis attempts to serve as a bridge between existing linguistic and didactic works by producing a linguistically responsible yet didactically adequate overview of Korean phonology, solely based on spoken language. I do this by taking the phoneme features described in Shin, Kiaer, and Cha's (2012) The sounds of Korean as a starting point. These features are tested in line with the methodology described in Ebeling’s (1960) Linguistic units by shifting the value of one feature at a time, and asking native speakers of Korean about the meanings of these realisations, if any. In order to make sure my work be accessible without the need for prior knowledge on linguistics, it selects only those linguistic terms that are necessary, all of which are explained. Next to exemplifying Ebeling’s methodology with an accessible exploration of contemporary Korean phonology, I have provided methodological considerations for didactic purposes. This work explores means of valorisation, making expert knowledge on the Korean language available for wider societal use. It ensures maximal applicability for a book that teaches second-language learners Korean pronunciation, and maximal adaptability to an introduction to Korean orthography.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
open access
2022-02-01T00:00:00Z
Much of the literature on heritage language phonology finds heritage speakers to show some influence from their dominant language compared to homeland speakers, but heritage speakers still perform...Show moreMuch of the literature on heritage language phonology finds heritage speakers to show some influence from their dominant language compared to homeland speakers, but heritage speakers still perform more accurately in their heritage language than do naïve speakers. Yet, research on heritage language phonology is limited compared to that on heritage language syntax and morphology. This is even more so the case for research on heritage speakers’ suprasegmental phonology: for instance, very little is known about heritage speakers’ perception of lexical tone. The present study used an ABX task to investigate perceptual segment-tone integration in heritage speakers of Vietnamese in the Netherlands, compared to monolingually raised Dutch and Vietnamese speakers in the homeland, respectively. Heritage speakers were found to have a stronger segment-tone integration than the monolingually raised Dutch, whereas the homeland Vietnamese showed a slightly stronger integration than the heritage speakers. Moreover, the groups’ integrations were asymmetrical: heritage speakers considered both tones and segments in word identification but had a clear preference for segments; the Dutch controls almost exclusively considered segments and the Vietnamese controls had a slight preference for tone-based word identification. The findings thus conform to previous literature on heritage language phonology: the heritage speakers performed intermediately between monolinguals of their heritage and dominant languages.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
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This thesis is a study of the personal pronoun system of Cuquila Mixtec, spoken by approximately 11.000 people in South-Central Mexico, in the state of Oaxaca. This Mixtec variety, which has not...Show moreThis thesis is a study of the personal pronoun system of Cuquila Mixtec, spoken by approximately 11.000 people in South-Central Mexico, in the state of Oaxaca. This Mixtec variety, which has not been previously described or documented, exhibits interesting features such as seven different third person pronouns and dedicated respect forms on the first, second and third person.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
open access
The reality in many cities across the world today is one of multilingualism (Kraus & Grin, 2018; Smakman & Heinrich, 2018). Municipalities need to deal with this linguistic superdiversity...Show moreThe reality in many cities across the world today is one of multilingualism (Kraus & Grin, 2018; Smakman & Heinrich, 2018). Municipalities need to deal with this linguistic superdiversity to be able to communicate with their citizens and to navigate inhabitants’ linguistic needs (Blommaert & Rampton, 2001; Kraus & Grin, 2018; Skrandies, 2016). There is a relative lack of research into municipal language policy, while it can have a profound impact on citizens’ lives and sociolinguistic identities (Backhaus, 2012; Siiner, 2014; Skrandies, 2016). The Hague, as the third largest city in The Netherlands, is a prime, but understudied example of such a multilingual reality and associated municipal language policy and politics (Tieken-Boon van Ostade, 2019). Moreover, allegedly, The Hague is the most segregated city in The Netherlands (Cornips et al., 2018), which makes issues of language policy, politics, and practice all the more prominent and interesting to investigate. Therefore, I examined two research questions: what are the language policy and politics regarding multilingualism in The Hague and how are these reflected in practice in municipal signage? The analysis takes a sociolinguistic and language policy perspective to answer these questions and is threefold: it consists of a Corpus Analysis of the language policy and politics of the current municipal council, a Critical Discourse Analysis of two language policy documents, and a Linguistic Landscape analysis of municipal signs in the city. The results of all three analyses indicate that the municipality focuses mostly on the acquisition and use of Dutch and generally describes multilingualism negatively, instead of as a resource. More specifically, the multilingualism of citizens who are already disadvantaged is viewed as an obstacle, while the multilingualism of so-called expats and internationals is embraced. This points to a social divide in The Hague based on socioeconomic class, language, and ethnic background, and is indicative of language ideologies about nationalism and economics (Skrandies, 2016).Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
closed access
Although there have been many studies looking into the integration process, likelihood and types of loans, the position of loans in the recipient language is less clear. They seem to be part of a...Show moreAlthough there have been many studies looking into the integration process, likelihood and types of loans, the position of loans in the recipient language is less clear. They seem to be part of a grey area, between the lexicon and incidental language use, bordering on code-switching. Through the analysis of a Dictionary Project, a Survey Project and Language Expert Interviews, this study attempts to map the factors that influence the perceived Dutchness of English loans in Dutch and attempts to narrow the grey area that loans are part of. The results show that the Linguistic Aspects, Age and Semantics of loans most strongly influence the perceived Dutchness. Moreover, the loans should not be a niche concept or be rarely used. Subsequently, the results make it possible to create a tentative blueprint for the characteristics a loan should have to be perceived as part of Dutch, in effect slightly narrowing the grey area loans are part of.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
closed access
“Eating meat is wrong”. Discussions about the consumption of animal products appear to be dominated by such all-or-nothing statements. As soon as someone says the words ‘meat’ or ‘vegetarian’, each...Show more“Eating meat is wrong”. Discussions about the consumption of animal products appear to be dominated by such all-or-nothing statements. As soon as someone says the words ‘meat’ or ‘vegetarian’, each side is sharpened, ready to defend its position against personal attacks by the opponent. While some argue that eating less meat will improve public health and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, others consider the consumption of animal products a matter of personal choice. Whichever way you look at it, the issue of meat consumption gives rise to a great deal of disagreement and ongoing debate. The ‘eat less meat’ debate can be defined as a public debate. Public debates are confrontations of different opinions, accessible to a broad group of people, on issues related to a problem that affects many people. The problem somehow requires action and is characterised by a sequence of practical consequences (Walton 2007:217). Such debates shape public attitudes and social norms based on different values (RMO 2011:13). A public debate is thus an exchange of different opinions and a reflection of what is happening in society. The above highlights that public debate covers a broad range of activities. By analysing the term ‘public debate’, this broad range can be clarified somewhat: it is a debate and it is public. That it is a debate means that it is about advancing arguments, but what does it mean that it is public? On the one hand, it indicates that the discussion is held in public: it must be possible for everyone to have access to the arguments put forward and the arguments must therefore be easily disseminated to the citizens. On the other hand, it points out that the debate is a discussion of the public: in the case of democracies, this means that all citizens, who are the public of their elected representatives, must be able to participate in the debate. In a public debate, therefore, not only must the arguments put forward be accessible to everyone, but the debate must also be accessible to everyone in terms of participation. The above points out that public debates take place in the ‘public sphere’: an imaginary community that exists not necessarily in an ‘identifiable space’ but should rather be understood as a place in social life where people can come together to freely identify and discuss social problems and, through that discussion, influence political action (Habermas 1962/1991:176). Under the influence of technological developments, the contemporary public sphere often takes place online. This ‘online public sphere’ is characterised by the coexistence of many different public actors who freely express their opinions: individual citizens, political parties, trade unions, companies, (government) institutions, the mass media, and so on. With the emergence of new media in the last two decades, the way in which discussions about common interests are conducted has changed radically. The new media have given people the means to play an active role in public debates: to protest against policy or to mobilise others and to put topics on the agenda. These developments have transformed public debates such as the ‘eat less meat’ debate into large-scale, complex political and ideological discussions in which opinions are defended and criticised from many different perspectives. This thesis focuses specifically on these large-scale complex public debates that take place in the online public sphere. Because these online large-scale complex public debates have a clear argumentative function, the analysis and evaluation of the discourse can be based on argumentative theories. From a pragma-dialectical perspective on argumentation, a public debate is a clearly distinguishable argumentative activity type: a conventional argumentative practice in which the possibilities for strategic maneuvers are predetermined (Van Eemeren & Garssen 2010:505). The fact that the way in which people participate in public debates has changed and, in particular, that in the kind of debates central to this thesis many different actors become protagonists of argumentatively-relevant moves, leads to challenges when analysing these online large-scale complex public debates from a pragma-dialectical perspective. This is because in dialectical models of argumentation, such as the model used in pragma-dialectics, argumentation is typically theorised as a dyadic exchange between two parties occupying two basic positions (Lewiński & Aakhus 2013:161). The new media, and other changes in public debates, thus pose a challenge for practice and theory on pragma-dialectical argumentation analysis and the reconstruction of argumentative activity types. This calls for an elucidation of the way in which this type of debate can be characterised and analysed in terms of pragma-dialectics. This research thus aims to find out how online large-scale complex public debates can be characterised and analysed in pragma-dialectical terms.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
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This thesis is based on my foundings during a visit to Gebe Island, North Maluku, Indonesia. Throughout my visit, I learned about the endangered Gebe language and culture. In my thesis, I firstly...Show moreThis thesis is based on my foundings during a visit to Gebe Island, North Maluku, Indonesia. Throughout my visit, I learned about the endangered Gebe language and culture. In my thesis, I firstly provide a geographical, societal, historical and sociolinguistic background to the Gebe Island and people. Secondly, I describe Gebe phonology, including phonotactics, phonetic and morphophonological processes, and suprasegmental phonology. Thirdly, I explain the differences between the word classes, among which nouns, verbs, adverbs, adpositions, demonstratives and quantifiers. Fourthly, I explain how nouns and verbs function in a clause, including how they form phrases, and how and by which units these phrases can be modified.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
open access
In this thesis, the finite verb in Lycian is described. All verbal endings and stems are analysed and given both a synchronic description and, to the maximum possible extent, a diachronic...Show moreIn this thesis, the finite verb in Lycian is described. All verbal endings and stems are analysed and given both a synchronic description and, to the maximum possible extent, a diachronic explanation. First, all verbal endings are gathered and described both generally and individually. Subsequently, the verbal stems are categorised into types according to stem formant (last segment(s) before the ending) and ending allomorphy (e.g. lenited vs. unlenited). The last sections are devoted to a detailed individual treatment of all attested Lycian verbal stems. A schema is presented in which the established Lycian stem types are mapped to their original Proto-Indo-European types (section 4.6), e.g. Lyc. s-stems < PIE sḱé/ó-presents. Thereby, a comprehensive model is provided by which the Lycian finite verb may be understood in both its Anatolian and Indo-European context.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
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The current study aimed to pinpoint some of the factors underlying the communication difficulties faced by Arabic-speaking immigrants learning Dutch as a second language (L2). To this end, six...Show moreThe current study aimed to pinpoint some of the factors underlying the communication difficulties faced by Arabic-speaking immigrants learning Dutch as a second language (L2). To this end, six classrooms where Dutch is taught as L2 were selected in order to investigate the level of the communicative orientation they foster. Part A of the COLT coding scheme (Fröhlich et al., 1985) was slightly modified and used for the classroom observations. That part of the scheme describes classroom events at the level of activity and contains categories related to participant organization, student modality, content and materials. The materials that seemed to highly control the classroom activities were also analysed in terms of their communicative orientation and in terms of the type and length of output they require from students. The results of the classroom observations revealed that that the communicative orientation was different among the six classes observed. It was minimal at some classes where the teacher was the dominant speaker and the sole controller of the topics discussed. Contrastively, students were passive learners who provided short, prescribed answers without involving in any kind of discussion. Classes with a minimal level of communicativeness were also characterized by being form-focused with minimal integration of meaning and by being highly controlled by the course materials. Other classes fostered the communicative competence at a moderate level. At these classes students were limitedly active, the integration of meaning was higher and group/pair discussion was present. The third type of classes observed was highly communicative. At these classes teachers and learners alike involved in open discussion and they both determined the topics to be discussed. Most of these topics were of broad reference. The analysis of the materials ascertained that the course books used were not communicatively oriented as they stimulate limited output from learners; both in terms of type and length. Nevertheless, a shift in the communicative orientation towards the more communicative end was traced throughout the two books.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
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This thesis aims to describe topics in the grammar Binumarien, a Papuan language (Kainantu) spoken in Papua New Guinea. The study provides a basic analysis of Binumarien phonology and nominal...Show moreThis thesis aims to describe topics in the grammar Binumarien, a Papuan language (Kainantu) spoken in Papua New Guinea. The study provides a basic analysis of Binumarien phonology and nominal morphology. Moreover, it contributes to the understudied topic of tone in Papuan languages with a description of tone in the Binumarien NP according to the latest developments in tonal typology. In addition, the switch reference marking system of Binumarien is described and placed in typology. The data for this thesis were collected during fieldwork, which took place from September 2018 to January 2019.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
open access
2023-08-31T00:00:00Z
In this thesis, I study loanwords of unknown origin in Proto-Indo-Iranian and early Post-Proto-Indo-Iranian. According to the Central Asian Substrate Hypothesis, Indo-Iranian speakers migrated to...Show moreIn this thesis, I study loanwords of unknown origin in Proto-Indo-Iranian and early Post-Proto-Indo-Iranian. According to the Central Asian Substrate Hypothesis, Indo-Iranian speakers migrated to Central Asia around 2000 BCE and came into contact with the agricultural BMAC civilization, which resulted in a body of loanwords into Proto-Indo-Iranian, borrowed from the language of the BMAC people. Following a methodology for identifying non-Indo-European vocabulary in Indo-European languages, I argue that 74 out of 103 previously suggested loanwords can plausibly be analyzed as loanwords (chapter 3). Only a handful of these may have been borrowed from known languages. After establishing the relative chronology of Proto-Indo-Iranian sound changes (chapter 2), I divide the 74 early Indo-Iranian loanwords into chronological layers based on when they were borrowed (chapter 3-4). I argue that 21 words were borrowed after the disintegration of Proto-Indo-Iranian. Moreover, I argue that many of the remaining 53 loanwords that are reconstructable to Proto-Indo-Iranian were borrowed towards the end of this stage. Finally, I integrate the chronological layers into my analysis of structural characteristics of early Indo-Iranian loanwords and describe two new phonological patterns of loanwords (chapter 5). The fact that many loanwords are shown to have been borrowed in late PII or Post-PII, i.e. after Indo-Iranian speakers migrated to Central Asia, is consistent with the timeline of the Central Asian Substrate Hypothesis. Second, the newly discovered phonological characteristics provide additional support for the Central Asian Substrate Hypothesis, since they increase the likelihood that most loanwords originate in the same language.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
open access
The laryngeal specification of obstruents, especially in Germanic, has been the subject of extensive study. However, most work has focussed on the laryngeal contrast in stops, while fricatives have...Show moreThe laryngeal specification of obstruents, especially in Germanic, has been the subject of extensive study. However, most work has focussed on the laryngeal contrast in stops, while fricatives have received comparatively little attention. This thesis presents a detailed examination of fricatives in Germanic languages from the perspective of Element Theory (ET), which, following the ‘laryngeal realism’ approach, distinguishes between H-languages (‘aspiration languages’) and L-languages (‘voicing languages’). The results of this examination show that fricatives do not always show the same behaviour as stops. First, in laryngeal contrasts, stops can always be distinguished by a laryngeal specification, whereas this is not always the case for fricatives, as voiced fricatives are sometimes not laryngeally specified. This is particularly true in North Germanic languages, since many voiced fricatives are better described as approximants, i.e. sonorants. Furthermore, while the stops in German and Dutch employ a laryngeal contrast, fricatives are argued to possibly differ in length instead. Second, the distribution of fricatives in syllable structure does not always parallel that of stops. Fricatives are pervasive in rhymal adjunct positions, whereas stops are primarily favoured in onsets. Of the fricatives, sibilants are the most ubiquitous in the rhymal adjunct position, and can in some cases even occur in the rhymal adjuncts of empty-headed syllables.Show less
Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
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This thesis sets out to explore relationships between attitudes to language learning and context as influential factors on the production, and perceived offensiveness and acceptability of L2...Show moreThis thesis sets out to explore relationships between attitudes to language learning and context as influential factors on the production, and perceived offensiveness and acceptability of L2 English swearwords. Using a sample of 111 L1 Dutch, L2 secondary school learners of English, this study uses a three-part approach to further understand L2 English swearing behaviour. The participants first completed a production task. In this task they replied to six hypothetical text- messages following a DCT approach that were manipulated on speaker (authoritative/non- authoritative). Following this, they completed an attitudes task consisting of 24 stimuli to be able to shed further light on attitudes to L2 English learning and swearing as possible influential variable on L2 swearing behaviour. Lastly, based on previous studies by Dewaele (2004, 2016, 2017) and Jay & Janschewitz (2008), the participants completed a perception task in which they rated the perceived offensiveness and acceptability of four swearwords in 4 different contexts. These contexts were manipulated on speaker (authoritative/non-authoritative) and location (formal/informal). For the production task, the findings suggest that participants are more likely to use swearwords in a closed-DCT design. Further, an effect of speaker is found as significantly more swearwords were used when the participants were in conversation with a friend rather than a parent. Swearing, however, occurred rather infrequently, which is partly explained by the negative attitudes of the participants to the use of swearwords. Continuing, the results of the perception task revealed significant effects of speaker (p = 0.001) and location (p = 0.005) on offensiveness ratings, and a significant effect of speaker on acceptability ratings (p = 0.001). Further, a strong negative correlation was revealed between offensiveness and acceptability. Lastly, a comparison between the ratings of offensiveness by the participants and native speaker scales of offence (Millwood-Hargrave, 2000; McEnery, 2006; OFCOM, 2016) show that the non-native participants significantly rate offensiveness lower than native speakers. These results re-affirm findings by other researchers such as Dewaele (2004, 2016, 2017) and Jay & Janschewitz (2008), and indicate that ratings of acceptability are largely dependent on ratings of offensiveness.Show less
