Background: Children learn about their surroundings through interest, curiosity and explorative behavior. These forms of intrinsic motivation seem to disappear when children start to attend school....Show moreBackground: Children learn about their surroundings through interest, curiosity and explorative behavior. These forms of intrinsic motivation seem to disappear when children start to attend school. The objectives in schools are generally focused on memorizing knowledge instead of the process of learning. To achieve differentiation in the classroom, studies show that stimulating executive functioning and intrinsic motivation in children could lead to better school achievements. Aim: The aim of the present study was to test if a teacher intervention focused on explorative behavior in children, would lead to higher levels of executive functioning and intrinsic motivation in children. Method: Teachers from four different elementary schools and 211 children (8-12 years) with their parents participated in a baseline and a follow-up assessment six months later. During both assessments two questionnaires were filled out by children on their motivation (Prestatie Motivatie Test voor Kinderen) and by parents on the children’s executive functioning (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function). After the baseline assessment the teacher intervention took place. The teachers learned about the development of the brain and how they could stimulate higher thinking processes, social cognition and explorative behavior in children. Results: A correlation was found between intrinsic motivation and the executive functions cognitive flexibility and working memory. Meaning that overall children with increased motivation also showed fewer problems with executive functioning. However, the teacher intervention showed no significant effects on either intrinsic motivation or executive functioning. Conclusion: This research showed that not only extrinsic motivation, but also intrinsic motivation correlates with the executive functions. Although these correlations were found, the teacher intervention showed no significant main effect. To monitor the effects of the teacher intervention more time and feedback is needed. Through longitudinal research behavioral changes in teachers and students can be monitored over time.Show less
Several studies have demonstrated a robust relation between executive functioning (EF) and Theory of Mind (ToM) in preschoolers, yet the developmental course of this relation in older children...Show moreSeveral studies have demonstrated a robust relation between executive functioning (EF) and Theory of Mind (ToM) in preschoolers, yet the developmental course of this relation in older children remains unclear. This follow-up study examined the concurrent and predictive relations between the EF components inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory and ToM skills in 89 typically developing children, aged four to eight years old, over a period of one year. Executive functioning was measured with the Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks, a computerized test battery. ToM skills were measured with the Social Cognitive Skills Test. The results showed that inhibition and cognitive flexibility, but not working memory, correlates significantly with ToM skills. None of the EF-components turned out to be an important predictor of ToM skills at one year follow-up. Repeated analyses for the children aged 6 to 8 years old, appears to show an involvement of EF in ToM skills, but further research is needed to investigate this possible relationship more thoroughly.Show less
Executive functions are important skills, which are needed to achieve academic and social success in life. Both neurological and environmental factors are influencing the development of executive...Show moreExecutive functions are important skills, which are needed to achieve academic and social success in life. Both neurological and environmental factors are influencing the development of executive functions. This study focused on one of the environmental factors: the level of education of the parents. We expected that the executive functions of children are better developed when parents have a higher level of education. We also expected to find a difference between parents with a high level of education and parents with a low level of education in how accurate they are in estimating the level of development of the executive functions of their children. The level of executive functioning of 403 children of 32 different schools in the Netherlands was measured with the following computer tasks: GoNoGo (Inhibition), Spatial Temporal Span (Working memory) and ZOO (Planning). The parents of these children were given questionnaires; the DEX-K (executive functions of the children) and DEX (executive functions of the parents). To answer the research questions ANOVAs, a multiple regression analyses and linear regression analyses were used. No relationship was found between the development of the executive functions of the children and the level of education of the parents. Also, the level of education was not related to the development of executive functions of the parents themselves. This in contradiction to the results found in previous studies. However, we found that parents with a higher educational level could estimate the level of working memory of their child more accurately than parents with a lower level of education. In conclusion, the educational level of the parents was not related to the level of the executive functions of their children.Show less
Although curiosity is regularly mentioned as an important factor for the development of scientific skills, limited research has been done to verify this assumption. The present study examined the...Show moreAlthough curiosity is regularly mentioned as an important factor for the development of scientific skills, limited research has been done to verify this assumption. The present study examined the relationship between curiosity, by examining qualitative and quantitative exploratory behaviour and mastery motivation, and science skills of primary schoolchildren from 5 to 8 years old. Exploration was measured with the ‘Playhouse’ computer task, mastery motivation with the DMQ questionnaire and science skills were measured with the WPPSI-III-NL Block Patterns and RAKIT Quantity. The results showed that there was a weak, yet significant relationship for science skills with quantitative exploratory behaviour (r = .16 p = .011), and ‘General Competence’ (r =.14, p = .021) as well as ‘Object-oriented persistence’ (r = .14, p = .020) on the mastery motivation subscale. Multiple regression analysis showed that there was a small influence of ‘General Competence’ on scientific skills, R2 = .02. This influence is substantially smaller than the influence of age, R2 = .21. So in this research the children with better qualitative and quantitative exploratory behaviour and stronger mastery motivation are not assumed to have better scientific skills. More research is required to understand the role of exploratory behaviour and mastery motivation in the development of scientific skills of primary school students.Show less
Introduction: Research on the development of executive functions (EF) in children can focus on multiple facets, but can also focus on a specific part such as planning, working memory and inhibition...Show moreIntroduction: Research on the development of executive functions (EF) in children can focus on multiple facets, but can also focus on a specific part such as planning, working memory and inhibition. The various executive functions can be distinguished clearly from each other, but cannot be seen independently. There is no clear data on the differences in the development of EF between boys and girls in their childhood. The present study focuses on the development of the executive functions planning, inhibition and working memory in boys and girls aged four to seven years over a period of one year. Methods: This study consisted of 462 children of the data from the ongoing study ‘Talentenkracht’. The data was collected between January to April 2009 (T1) and between January to May 2010 (T2). In this study, the executive functions planning (subtest "zoo map" of the Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome for Children (BADS-NL)), inhibition (subtest GoNoGo of the Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks (ANT)) and working memory (subtest Spatial Temporal Sequencing (STS) on the ANT) were investigated. Using paired-samples T-tests and univariate analyses of variance, the relation and development of the three executive functions, gender and age have been studied. Results: This study involved 247 boys (53.5%) and 215 girls (46.5%). The mean age (M) at T1 was 5.2 years and at T2 6.2 years. The mean outcome on T1 for planning was -1.45, inhibition 34.4 and working memory 12.0. This was at T2 -1.03, 28.4 and 22.4, respectively. For boys and girls, there was a significant difference in mean outcomes between T1 and T2 for inhibition and working memory. The development of inhibition has a significant relationship with gender at T1 and T2. Both measurements remained significantly different after adjustment for age. In the development of the working memory, there is both a significant relationship with age at T1 as well as at T2. Conclusions: The present study showed differences in the development of the executive functions planning, inhibition and working memory in boys and girls aged four to seven years. Apart from the expected (natural) development of the EF over a period of 11.3 months average, gender was also a profound influence on inhibition. As for planning, no significant results did occur. In the development of the EF memory, time is more indicative than gender.Show less
