Introduction: Previous research in blood plasma has revealed a potential relationship between depression and the immune system. A similar relationship between aggressive behavior and the immune...Show moreIntroduction: Previous research in blood plasma has revealed a potential relationship between depression and the immune system. A similar relationship between aggressive behavior and the immune system suggests that the three phenomena are interconnected in some way. To date, this interaction has not been researched in adolescents. The current study investigates the relationship between adolescent depression and immune markers (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and CRP), and examines aggressive behavior as a potential moderator in this relationship. Immune markers were measured in salivary samples, contributing to the incorporation of a novel, non- invasive way to assess inflammation in mental health research. Methods: A total of 114 adolescents with and without clinically diagnosed depression were included in the present study (32 depressed, 76 healthy controls; 32.4% males; mean age 15.91 years old, ranging from 12-18). Participants provided 2ml saliva via passive drool, in which IL6, IL-1β and TNF-α were analyzed with the Luminex Human Discovery Assay (Bio-Techne), and CRP was analyzed with an ELISA Kit Generation II (Salimetrics). Parents of the participating adolescents filled in the Child Behavior Checklist-questionnaire on aggressive behavior. Results: In an analysis of covariance no significant associations were found between depression and levels of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and CRP. In addition, no significant moderating effects of aggressive behavior on this relationship were found. Conclusion: Despite earlier evidence nudging towards a relationship between depression and the immune system, this study has not obtained similar results. Future studies on the matter are warranted, preferably with simultaneous advancement of salivary measurement technologies.Show less
Violence against women is a persistent problem with deleterious consequences, such as the onset and maintenance of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There is still little evidence-based...Show moreViolence against women is a persistent problem with deleterious consequences, such as the onset and maintenance of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There is still little evidence-based research done on the effects of peer support for people with symptoms of PTSD that have experienced domestic violence. Consequently, it is of great clinical interest to investigate if peer support groups are beneficial for this subgroup. This study investigated whether peer support groups are an effective treatment for reducing PTSD symptoms by increasing hopefulness among women who have experienced abuse. Thirteen female participants (Mage = 37.54 years at baseline) attended ten sessions of peer support groups led by an experience expert and completed questionnaires at a pre-measurement and a post-measurement. The methods used in this study were the Life Events Checklist, PTSD checklist for DSM-5, adult hope scale, and childhood trauma questionnaire. We found a reduction in the severity of PTSD symptoms (for intrusion symptoms and negative changes in cognitions and mood) and an increase in hopefulness after participation in the peer support sessions. This increase was seen for both participants' goal orientation and their ability to make plans to achieve their goals. Although we expected a relationship between PTSD symptomology and hopefulness, this was not found. The findings from this study suggest that peer support groups may be a beneficial addition for women with PTSD symptoms who are not in treatment (yet) or have tried established PTSD treatment.Show less
Background: Childhood maltreatment (abuse and neglect) has been associated with high levels of the pro-inflammatory marker interleuken-6 (IL-6), which is a risk factor for developing chronic...Show moreBackground: Childhood maltreatment (abuse and neglect) has been associated with high levels of the pro-inflammatory marker interleuken-6 (IL-6), which is a risk factor for developing chronic inflammation and poor health outcomes. How hormonal sex differences affect this relationship remains unclear. Objective: The first aim of this study was to investigate the association between experienced childhood maltreatment and inflammation, measured via salivary levels of IL-6. We then explored if this relationship was moderated by sex differences. Methods: A total of 117 participants (50.4% female, aged 22 to 65 years old) were recruited at Leiden University from a cross-sectional family study. Experienced abused and neglect were measured through self-report questionnaires (Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales, Childhood Trauma Questionnaire), and IL-6 was measured through saliva samples gathered. Data was analysed with a moderation analysis, performed with the SPSS PROCESS macro. Results: Results indicate that there was no significant relationship between childhood maltreatment and increased levels of IL-6 in saliva, and sex differences did not moderate the relationship. A significant association was found between general health problems and increased levels of IL-6. Conclusion: No conclusive statements could be made with insignificant results. Further research should focus on differences in sex hormones (testosterone, oestrogen) after experiencing childhood maltreatment, with more distinction between abuse vs. neglect. And future studies should explore the validity of collecting IL-6 in salivary samples over blood.Show less
Adults who have experienced trauma in their childhood risk having a wide range of mental health problems, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, there may be protective factors...Show moreAdults who have experienced trauma in their childhood risk having a wide range of mental health problems, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, there may be protective factors that could explain why not all victims develop psychopathology in adulthood. One of these potential factors is ‘psychological resilience’: a cognitive process that determines if an individual is able to bounce back from a negative experience through flexible adaptation. The current study aims to examine the relationship between childhood trauma and PTSD symptoms, along with the possible moderating impact of psychological resilience on this relationship. This was investigated with a cross-sectional design, by means of an online selfreport questionnaire performed by 26 Dutch women aged 25 to 62 years of whom most had experienced some type of trauma. The data was collected using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SR), the PTSD Checklist for DSM-V (PCL-5) and the Resilience Evaluation Scale (RES). The results of a multiple regression analysis demonstrated that, as expected, women who experienced more childhood trauma showed an increased amount of PTSD symptoms (R² = .614, p ≤ .000), and that women with a higher level of resilience showed a lower amount of PTSD symptoms (R² = .74, p ≤ .000). However, resilience cannot be considered as a moderator of the relationship between childhood trauma and PTSD symptoms, as the interaction between childhood trauma and resilience was not significant (p = .179). Instead, the study did find that women who experienced more childhood trauma show lower levels of resilience (r = -.574, p = < .005). The current study recommends future studies to examine what exact role resilience has in the relationship between childhood trauma and PTSD symptoms. In addition, it emphasizes to boost resilience in victims of childhood trauma, because it may decrease the likelihood of developing PTSD symptoms in adulthood.Show less
Children’s early life experiences cause the emergence of individual differences in stress coping and social behavior. Attachment styles (AS) conceptualize stable behavioral patterns in response to...Show moreChildren’s early life experiences cause the emergence of individual differences in stress coping and social behavior. Attachment styles (AS) conceptualize stable behavioral patterns in response to stress and can predict long-term susceptibility to mental illness. This study investigates the relationship between 1-year-old infants’ AS, their hormonal stress response in terms of cortisol reactivity (CR) - both assessed in the course of the Strange Situation procedure - and the influence of these factors on children’s scores on the Child Behavior Checklist’s internalizing behavior problem scale (CBCL-I) five years later. Based on previous research, CR was expected to be higher with insecure compared to secure AS. Insecure AS and higher CR in infancy were expected to be associated with higher CBCL-I scores in later childhood. CR was hypothesized to partly mediate the relationship between AS and CBCL-I. Relevant longitudinal data (n=220; 40.8% female, 51.7% male) were drawn from a sample of mother-child dyads (“BIBO” research project). No evidence for any of the hypotheses could be found, as the analyses yielded no statistically significant associations between AS and CBCL-I scores, AS and CR, or CR and CBCL-I. Consequently, testing for CR’s potential mediating role was deemed irrelevant. The results contradict previous findings and raise important questions. The study’s limitations are discussed and suggestions are derived to inform future research on stress pathways in the pathogenesis of mental disorder. Above all, the poorly understood role of potentially decisive covariates in the interplay between AS, CR, and internalizing behavior need to be investigated more thoroughly.Show less
The experiences of interpersonal trauma can have long-lasting effects on multiple life domains including mental health. Literature suggests that the strength of this relation may be impacted by the...Show moreThe experiences of interpersonal trauma can have long-lasting effects on multiple life domains including mental health. Literature suggests that the strength of this relation may be impacted by the amount of experiential avoidance individuals use. This study aims to examine the relation between interpersonal trauma and depressive feelings and the impact of experiential avoidance on this relation. This was investigated by means of online self-report questionnaires performed by 27 females with an average age of 46.26 (SD = 11.85). To measure whether participants experienced interpersonal trauma the Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 was administered. Depression scores were assessed by means of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9. Experiential avoidance was measured with the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire- II. Linear and multiple regression analyses were performed, and indicated that females who experienced interpersonal trauma score significantly higher on depression than females who did not experience interpersonal trauma (p = .008, R 2 = .25). Findings of the multiple regression analysis indicate no significant interaction of interpersonal trauma and experiential avoidance (p = .614). However, experiential avoidance by itself was a significant predictor of depression (p =<0.01) and reduced the explanatory variance of interpersonal trauma. This possibly indicates a mediating effect of experiential avoidance on the relationship between interpersonal trauma and depression. Recommendations for future research is to investigate this possible mediating role of experiential avoidance on the relation between interpersonal trauma and depression. The current findings suggest that treatments 5 targeting greater experiential acceptance, possibly through peer support groups, might help victims of interpersonal trauma.Show less
Background: Childhood maltreatment has been linked to higher risks for poorer health in adulthood with elevated levels of inflammatory markers as a potential mechanism explaining this link. Close...Show moreBackground: Childhood maltreatment has been linked to higher risks for poorer health in adulthood with elevated levels of inflammatory markers as a potential mechanism explaining this link. Close social relationships might buffer against the negative consequences of stress, such as childhood maltreatment, on immune function. Research objective: This study aimed at investigating the association between childhood maltreatment and adult inflammation and the role of loneliness and social support as potential moderators in this relationship. Methods: Data from the 3G study (Buisman et al., 2020) with a multi-informant multigeneration cross-sectional design was used. In total, a sample of 113 adult individuals who provided saliva samples for IL-6, IL-8, TNF-⍺, and IFN- analyses and completed self-report questionnaires about loneliness, social support, and experienced childhood maltreatment in the first 18 years of life was included in the analyses. Results: Childhood maltreatment did not predict the inflammatory markers IL-6, IL-8, TNF-⍺, and IFN-. Further, loneliness and social support did not moderate the relationship between childhood maltreatment and adult inflammation. Conclusion: Future research is needed to investigate the role of social support and loneliness as potential moderators in the association between childhood maltreatment and adult inflammation. Several implications for future research are discussed that will help to establish interventions that aim at reducing the risks for poorer health in adults with a history of childhood maltreatment.Show less
Psychotic experiences (PEs) occur in up to 30% of children, usually subsiding during adolescence. The presence of PEs alone can lead to mental distress; additionally its persistence can have grave...Show morePsychotic experiences (PEs) occur in up to 30% of children, usually subsiding during adolescence. The presence of PEs alone can lead to mental distress; additionally its persistence can have grave consequences for the child’s development. Neighborhood characteristics are a promising new frontier for research on the development of PEs in childhood and adolescence. The main aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between neighborhood social cohesion, living conditions, objective and perceived safety, and PEs at age 14. The secondary aim was to investigate the relationship of the aforementioned neighborhood factors with the trajectory of PEs from age 10 to 14. We ran a specificity analysis using depressive symptoms to evaluate whether the associations were indicative of a link with general psychopathology or specific psychotic spectrum outcomes. We used the Generation R cohort data on self-reported hallucinations and delusions, and the Wijkprofiel Rotterdam on social, safety, and physical characteristics of the neighborhood. In our multilevel logistic regression analysis, we found no evidence for an association of any neighborhood factors with PEs at age 14. There were trends demonstrating the potential association between living conditions and two outcomes: remission of PEs at age 14, and severe depressive symptoms. However, neither association survived multiple testing correction. We discuss the need for further research to ascertain whether the associations apply to general psychopathology or psychotic spectrum outcomes. Furthermore, we propose the need to clarify new potential associations of neighborhood factors with PEs.Show less
Background: Exposure to childhood maltreatment (CM) can induce hyperactive inflammatory responses, which can persist into adult life. Elevated levels of inflammation markers can impair brain...Show moreBackground: Exposure to childhood maltreatment (CM) can induce hyperactive inflammatory responses, which can persist into adult life. Elevated levels of inflammation markers can impair brain functioning and development, which can in turn increase the risk for psychopathology. Hence, inflammation might be one of the potential mechanisms explaining the link between CM and adult psychopathology. Objective: This study aimed to investigate whether inflammation might mediate the relationship between CM and internalizing psychopathology in adulthood. Additionally, the study aimed to determine whether this effect is specific to one or more subtypes of CM. Methods: A total of 116 adults participated in the study. CM was assessed using a combination of two questionnaires: the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS-PC) and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). Participants’ saliva samples were analysed for three pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α). The Internalizing Problems subscale from the Adult Self Report (ASR) questionnaire was used to determine internalizing psychopathology. Parallel mediation analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses. Results: Experienced childhood abuse and neglect both significantly predicted internalizing symptoms in adulthood. However, the associations were not mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines. Conclusions: This study’s findings add to the extensive body of literature showing the longterm effects of CM on internalizing psychopathologies. Contrary to expectations, the mediation effect of inflammation in this relationship was not identified. As several methodological factors could have influenced the results, this outcome should not be considered as a firm disconfirmation of the mediation hypothesis. Further prospective studies addressing this question are warranted.Show less
BACKGROUND: Child maltreatment is a global health problem affecting children across the globe, that can result in serious impairments in later life, taking the form of serious psychological...Show moreBACKGROUND: Child maltreatment is a global health problem affecting children across the globe, that can result in serious impairments in later life, taking the form of serious psychological disorders or impoverished social skills. Empathy belongs to one of these fundamental skills. The current study aims to replicate previous findings that childhood maltreatment history is associated with lower empathy levels. Generally, research distinguishes between affective and cognitive empathy. Hence, this study explores possible differences in impact of child maltreatment history on cognitive versus affective empathy. METHOD: This cross-sectional design involved 218 healthy participants between 18 and 79 years of age. To assess child maltreatment, the Dutch version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) was used. The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and the Multifaceted Empathy Test (MET) were used to assess both cognitive and affective empathy. The sample was divided into maltreated and non-maltreated participants, by applying cut-off scores, and where compared with multivariate ANOVAs on MET mean arousal level, MET total accuracy, perspective taking (PT), empathic concern (EC), fantasy (FS) and personal distress (PD). RESULTS: The present study failed to replicate previous findings of associations between child maltreatment and lowered empathy. Furthermore, a difference in impact on the two forms of empathy was not identified. However, after the exclusion of outliers, an indication was found for impaired cognitive empathy in individuals with maltreatment history. DISCUSSION: The present study shows that possible selective effects of child maltreatment on either cognitive or affective empathy may exist. Knowing how maltreatment differentially affects individuals in later adulthood, can help to optimize both prevention measures as well as treatments dealing with the consequence of child maltreatment, e.g. individual training focusing on either type of empathy. Limitations of the present study are discussed.Show less
BACKGROUND: Previous research found that anxious characteristic traits might have its origin in the prenatal phase due to the infant's exposure to maternal stress hormones. Maternal prenatal stress...Show moreBACKGROUND: Previous research found that anxious characteristic traits might have its origin in the prenatal phase due to the infant's exposure to maternal stress hormones. Maternal prenatal stress symptoms as well as high cortisol levels have been found to predict negative affectivity in infant temperament. The current paper examined whether maternal prenatal cortisol decline during the day in late pregnancy mediates the relationship between maternal prenatal anxiety and negative affectivity in infant temperament at age 1. METHOD: This longitudinal correlational study included 114 mother-child pairs. Anxiety was assessed once in the last trimester of pregnancy and three months after giving birth. Salivary samples were taken five times a day for two days in the third trimester to determine cortisol concentrations. Infant temperament was assessed by a questionnaire answered by the mothers at infant's age 1. Maternal postnatal anxiety, birth weight and infant's gender were examined as possible covariates. RESULTS: Results revealed that there is a significant correlation between maternal prenatal anxiety and negative affectivity in infants (p < .05). No mediation effect of cortisol decline on the relationship between high scores in maternal prenatal anxiety and higher negative affectivity in infants was found. DISCUSSION: It was not clear whether adverse behavioural developments were dependent on maternal prenatal patterns and thus, whether infants could be prone to anxiety issues in later life. The study provided a framework for future studies to assess pathology's aetiology in a transgenerational way. Alternative explanations, limitations and future directions were discussed.Show less
