For children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), social contact can be particularly challenging, which can impact their level of peer acceptance. This study aimed to explore the relationship...Show moreFor children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), social contact can be particularly challenging, which can impact their level of peer acceptance. This study aimed to explore the relationship between social contact and peer acceptance among children with ASD. We hypothesized that children with ASD had fewer contacts and were less accepted by peers than children without ASD. Furthermore, we hypothesized that increased social contact was associated with greater levels of peer acceptance for both children with and without ASD, but less strong for children with ASD in comparison to children without ASD. With a novel approach, this study documented the amount of social contact and the level of peer acceptance of 95 children in two special education schools in the Netherlands. The sample included 46 children with (Mage = 10.2, SD = 1.0) and 49 children without ASD (Mage = 11.3, SD=1.0), with an age range from 8 to 13 years, who were observed through proximity tags to measure social contact, and the LITOP questionnaire was utilized to assess the level of peer acceptance. MANOVA was employed to investigate whether children with ASD had fewer contacts and were less accepted than their peers without ASD and the hierarchical regression analysis was used to examine the potential relationship between social contact and peer acceptance and. Surprisingly, children with ASD engaged in contact with more partners and were more accepted than children without ASD, despite the expectedly shorter duration of contact. Moreover, no significant relation was found between social contact and peer acceptance, for the two groups alike. These findings indicate that peer acceptance may not solely depend on the quantity of contact, but rather on the quality and context. Consequently, it is advised that educators facilitate structured social activities to facilitate finding similar peers and shared interests. Further research is required to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of the contact and its emotional aspects, with the aim of developing more effective strategies for enhancing peer acceptance among children with ASD. This could be achieved through a combination of quantitative measurements, such as proximity tags and qualitative measurement, including observationsShow less
Food waste is a global problem, which necessitates addressing. A pilot (N = 56) and main study (N = 124) used online survey research to explore the expected negative relationship between viewing a...Show moreFood waste is a global problem, which necessitates addressing. A pilot (N = 56) and main study (N = 124) used online survey research to explore the expected negative relationship between viewing a food waste reduction-poster and food waste intentions, the expected negative relationship between self-efficacy and food waste intentions and the expected moderating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between poster and food waste intentions. In the main study, participants were randomly allocated to a poster (N = 31) or control condition (N = 30) without a poster. Repeated measures ANOVA showed no differences between groups nor within participants when comparing food waste intentions between two measurement points. Regression analyses showed neither a main- nor a moderating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between seeing the poster and food waste intentions. Limitations, suggestions and implications were discussed and the importance of future research into this subject was highlighted.Show less
Objective Recent research has found conflicting interactions between health and different domains of physical activity (PA). Occupational physical activity (OPA) seems to negatively impact health,...Show moreObjective Recent research has found conflicting interactions between health and different domains of physical activity (PA). Occupational physical activity (OPA) seems to negatively impact health, whereas leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) positively impacts health, a phenomenon known as the physical activity paradox. What remains unclear is how these different domains of PA interact with each other and how their interaction influences health. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the main and interactive effects of OPA and LTPA on physical and mental health. A better understanding of these relations can contribute to more accurate PA advice, indirectly contributing to the closure of socioeconomic health inequalities. Based on previous studies, it was expected that higher OPA would relate to higher physical and mental health problems, while higher LTPA would relate to lower physical and mental health problems. Additionally, this study aimed to answer the research question whether LTPA functions as a buffer for the negative effects of high OPA on health or as an accelerator. Methods To investigate the hypotheses and research question, data from a longitudinal panel study were used. Two data measurement points were used with a one-year time lag. The sample was heterogeneous and consisted of Dutch employees working ≥ 24-hours a week (N = 1578). Results It was found that OPA and LTPA independently did not affect physical or mental health outcomes differently. Additionally, different combinations of OPA and LTPA did not lead to an increase or decrease in both physical mobility or mental health problems one year later. However, the results did show that individuals who had high levels of both OPA and LTPA had the highest chance on developing physical health problems one year later (b = 0.393, p = <0.001). Conclusion This study shows that OPA and LTPA may have different effects on the development of physical health problems, like headache and sleeping problems. The findings suggest that the health benefits of LTPA are affected by the extent of OPA and that a combination of both high OPA and LTPA is the most unfavourable combination. This combination is associated with an increase in physical health problems. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.Show less
The DuLIP-Extended is the extension of the Dutch Linguistic Intraoperative Protocol (De Witte et al., 2015) which aims to test language function on the linguistic levels of phonology, semantics,...Show moreThe DuLIP-Extended is the extension of the Dutch Linguistic Intraoperative Protocol (De Witte et al., 2015) which aims to test language function on the linguistic levels of phonology, semantics, and syntax in cases of awake brain surgery on glioma patients with no or mild aphasia. The extension aims to make awake surgery feasible for glioma patients who have severe preoperative aphasia, by the addition of less complex tasks on all linguistic levels. This study aims to provide insight into how a healthy Flemish and Dutch sample perform on the DuLIP-Extended. Insight was gained by investigating which items should be removed depending on low accuracy rate in a healthy Dutch and a healthy Flemish sample, what the accuracy rates of the performances were on subtask level, whether the performances of the Dutch and Flemish samples significantly differed from each other, and whether the factors of sex, age, and education level affected task performances. The Dutch sample contained 71 participants and the Flemish contained 80 participants. Across the samples the age range was 18 years of age to 83 years of age. Accuracy rate was below 80% for only a few items (k = 6 in the Dutch sample, k = 3 in the Flemish sample) and these items were marked for removal in future versions of the DuLIP-Extended. Overall performances of both samples were high in accuracy (all subtask medians were above 80%). Mann-Whitney U tests revealed differences in performances on four subtasks of the DuLIP-Extended between the Flemish and Dutch sample. Lastly, sex, age, and education level had no effect on the performances of the Dutch sample.Show less
In the last few years there has been an increase of divorces and blended families. It is estimated that in about two-thirds of these blended families, the relationship between the new partners ends...Show moreIn the last few years there has been an increase of divorces and blended families. It is estimated that in about two-thirds of these blended families, the relationship between the new partners ends in separation. Improving the relationships between siblings is crucial to improve the stability and the dynamics in these families. Biological siblings seem to have better relationships than step- and halfsiblings, possibly due to the number of shared experiences in their childhood. This study examines the connection between shared experiences in childhood and the quality of the sibling relationship and examines whether this connection differs between different types of siblings. To investigate this, young adults between the age of 18 and 25 years old were asked to complete a questionnaire about the quality of the relationship with their siblings, the Lifespan Sibling Relationship Scale, and other related aspects. The sample consisted of 112 participants that were recruited through online ads through social media, through flyers at Leiden University, and through SONA. The results show a significant association between the number of shared experiences in childhood and the quality of the brother-sister relationship. The experiences that were significant for the quality of the sibling relationship were ‘having the same hobbies or interests’ and ‘played together’. This association did not differ between the different types of siblings, this highlights the universal relevance of shared experiences between siblings. These findings underscore the importance of stimulating shared experiences between siblings. Especially within blended families, where sibling relationships play an important role in family cohesion. Future research should further explore approaches to enhance sibling relationships to improve the development of children and the family itself.Show less
Math is a skill that is relevant throughout life. Therefore, a good mastery of math is crucial for a successful education and career. Previous research indicates that training spatial skills...Show moreMath is a skill that is relevant throughout life. Therefore, a good mastery of math is crucial for a successful education and career. Previous research indicates that training spatial skills improves both math and spatial skills in students. Spatial anxiety might influence the effectiveness of the training. This study aims to determine which spatial training condition works best to improve students' math and spatial skills and what role the spatial anxiety has on this effect. The training in the current research consists of mental rotation tasks. Four training conditions are compared in the current study: concrete, digital, video and control. In the concrete condition, the students can hold a physical figure identical to the task. In the digital condition, the students can turn the figure on their laptop screen. In the video condition, the students can watch a video of the figure turning. In the control condition, the students were not provided with any tools. After correcting for missing values, 189 students from group 7 and 8 of primary schools in the West of The Netherlands participated in the current study. Math and spatial skills were measured through tests. Spatial anxiety was determined using a questionnaire. The results showed that students improved their spatial skills between the pretest and the posttest across all conditions. However, no significant differences were found between the conditions. Math skills improved among students in the control, digital and concrete condition. Spatial anxiety was not found to affect gains in math and spatial skills. These findings were partially aligned with previous research. The differences could possibly be explained by differences in research design or limitations of the current study. Based on this study, several suggestions are made for future research, such as adding an additional control group that does not undergo training.Show less
In Europe, more than half of adults are obese (WHO, 2022). Enhancing the self-regulation of energy intake, the ability to respond to one's own hunger or satiety signals, can reduce the risk of...Show moreIn Europe, more than half of adults are obese (WHO, 2022). Enhancing the self-regulation of energy intake, the ability to respond to one's own hunger or satiety signals, can reduce the risk of obesity (DiSantis et al., 2011). Promoting the self-regulation of energy intake as early as possible in development is therefore crucial. The present study examined the relation between maternal sensitivity in different contexts (during free play and during meals) at 18 months and the child's self-regulation of energy intake at 24 months. The sample consisted of 103 mother-child dyads (41.7% boys), obtained from the longitudinal study "Baby's first bites” (Van der Veek et al., 2019). Maternal sensitivity was measured using “the Ainsworth Maternal Sensitivity Scale” (Ainsworth et al., 1974). The self- regulation of energy intake was assessed using an “Eating in Absence of Hunger” paradigm (Schultink et al., 2021). First, no significant relation was found between maternal sensitivity during free play at 18 months and self-regulation of energy intake at 24 months. Second, maternal sensitivity during mealtime at 18 months was not related to self-regulation of energy intake at 24 months. Finally, maternal sensitivity during free play and during mealtime at 18 months did not make a unique contribution to the child's self-regulation of energy intake at 24 months. This study contributed to the emerging research area of parenting practices and the self-regulation of energy intake. Based on the current research, it cannot be stated that maternal sensitivity contributes to the child's self-regulation of energy intake. Therefore, it is not yet clear how parents can best contribute to good self-regulation of energy intake. Follow-up research is needed.Show less
The diagnosis of Sex Chromosome Trisomy (SCT) is increasing rapidly worldwide. About 1 in 650-1000 children are born with an extra X or Y chromosome. These common chromosomal abnormalities,...Show moreThe diagnosis of Sex Chromosome Trisomy (SCT) is increasing rapidly worldwide. About 1 in 650-1000 children are born with an extra X or Y chromosome. These common chromosomal abnormalities, including XXY/Klinefelter syndrome, XXX/Trisomy X and XYY syndrome, affect both physical development and behaviour. There is an increased risk of behavioural problems, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms, in children with SCT (Rijn, 2019; Tartaglia et al., 2010; Urbanus, 2022). Despite these findings, there has been limited research on the variations in ASD characteristics in children with SCT and possible protective and risk factors. Therefore, this study aims to better understand the characteristics of ASD in children with SCT, identify possible protective and risk factors related to parenting skills for this group, and ultimately optimise support measures, early detection and appropriate interventions for this specific genetic population. For this purpose, the following research question was formulated; Is there a difference in the level of ASD characteristics in children with SCT 3-7 years compared to peers? And to what extent do the parenting skills (mentalisation and sensitivity) of parents with children aged 3-7 years with SCT correlate with the level of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) characteristics of this specific population? Data for this study is selected from a larger quantitative study conducted by Leiden University and the TRIXY Centre of Expertise. Children with SCT and their parents were recruited through support groups and clinical genetics departments in hospitals in the Netherlands, Belgium and the US. The control group was recruited from nurseries, public locations and primary schools. The study includes 145 children aged between 3 and 7 years, with 71 participants in control group and 74 participants in the SCT group. This study showed that a significant difference was found in the level of autism traits between children with SCT and children without SCT. Children with SCT scored significantly higher on every autism trait that was tested. In addition, no correlation was found between parenting skills; sensitivity and mentalisation and the level of autism traits in children with SCT. Based on this, a dimensional approach, rather than a binary criterion, is recommended as this could help detect subtle variations and gradations in ASD symptoms earlier, enabling early diagnosis. In addition, this research outcome implies that other factors such as biological, neurological and other environmental factors may have a greater influence on the level of ASD characteristics in children with SCT. More research needs to be done on this to say this with great certainty. This study is limited by no distinguish between different types of sex chromosome trisomy, which may limit the generalisability of the results. In addition, the study included children aged 3-7 years, but at this stage children develop rapidly, and ASD traits may manifest differently depending on age, which may limit the generalisability of the results to any age between 3 and 7 years. Besides these limitations, the study also has many strengths, such as contributing to increasing scientific knowledge about ASD traits in children with SCT, early detection of these and possible risk and protective factors.Show less
Primary education teachers can feel incompetent in responding to the needs and behaviors of their pupils, especially those showing disruptive behaviors. By taking the student’s perspective, the...Show morePrimary education teachers can feel incompetent in responding to the needs and behaviors of their pupils, especially those showing disruptive behaviors. By taking the student’s perspective, the teacher should be able to understand the student better and react more responsively. Through this the teacher experiences more positive interactions with the student which contribute to developing and maintaining a positive student-teacher relationship. It is suggested that teachers’ sense of self- efficacy could play a role in the relationship between student-perspective taking and the student- teacher relationship. Therefore, the current study researches the relationship that is described above, and the potential role the teacher’s self-efficacy plays within this. The sample consisted of 133 Dutch regular primary school teachers. Results showed a significant relationship between student-perspective taking and the student-teacher relationship when teachers take the student’s perspective on the level of articulation. The relationship with taking the student’s perspective on the level of positioning, is non-significant. Regarding the role of teachers’ self-efficacy within this relationship, the results show that there is no mediating role. Meanwhile, a significant, positive relationship has been found between the teacher’s self-efficacy and the student-teacher relationship. The findings of this study can be used in developing and shaping interventions for teachers for developing, improving and maintaining positive student-teacher relationships.Show less
This research aimed to comprehensively understand the demographics and characteristics of transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals seeking mental health care upon initiating gender...Show moreThis research aimed to comprehensively understand the demographics and characteristics of transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals seeking mental health care upon initiating gender-affirming care. Additionally, it focused on optimal integration of mental health care into gender-affirming care according to TGD individuals. Both were within the framework of an ongoing investigation at the Zaans Medical Centre. The quantitative data analysis consisted of intake questionnaire data of twenty-five TGD individuals, variables were derived from sections of the intake questionnaire. For the qualitative data analysis, seven semi-structured interviews were held with TGD individuals. The characteristics of TGD individuals consisted of self-reported psychological distress and well-being. Their relationship to requested mental health care intensity was studied through Spearman rank order correlations. The demographics included age, educational level, ethnicity, employment status, experienced income, and gender assigned at birth. Their association with requesting mental health care was explored through chi-square tests. A thematic analysis with semantic approach was performed to analyse the data. No significant correlations were found between demographic variables and mental health care requests at admission. The correlation between self-reported psychological distress and mental health care intensity was χ2 = -.003, p = .987, for self-reported psychological well-being and mental health care intensity χ2 = -.001, p = .997. Thematic analysis of interview data yielded three overarching themes: motives for seeking mental health care, recommendations for integrating mental health services into gender-affirming care, and desirable attributes of mental health care providers. Reasons for refraining from or seeking mental health care included experiencing psychological distress or good psychological well-being, experiences due to gender dysphoria, acceptance of themselves, and experienced lack of support. Suggestions for optimal mental health care integration were better and more provision of (mental) health care and travel distance to mental health care. Qualities of the ideal mental health care professional were having certain character traits such as being accepting and being specialized in TGD. Overall, this research emphasizes the importance of knowledgeability and empathetic and inclusive qualities in mental health care professionals in the treatment of TGD individuals suggesting its importance over mental health care professionals’ gender identity.Show less
Bachelor thesis | Cultural Anthropology and Development Sociology (BSc)
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The thesis "Shaping Tomorrow’s Cities: Exploring Human-Environment Relations for Social Sustainability" examines the diverse interactions between humans and their environments in relation to social...Show moreThe thesis "Shaping Tomorrow’s Cities: Exploring Human-Environment Relations for Social Sustainability" examines the diverse interactions between humans and their environments in relation to social sustainability within urban areas. I focus on marginalised groups whose experiences often diverge from mainstream perspectives. Through case studies such as the Minha Casa Minha Vida project in Brazil and Hyde Park in the United States, this thesis highlights how these communities infuse spaces with personal and collective memories, influencing their interactions with the environment. These studies suggest that standardised urban planning policies may overlook the lived realities of marginalised communities, leading to social sustainability initiatives that fall short of addressing their needs. By examining the complex social, historical, and economic factors that shape human-environment relations, the thesis proposes a reimagined approach to urban planning that could foster more inclusive, equitable and supportive urban spaces.Show less
Bij het naleven van gedragsdoelen is een vorm van zelfregulatie van belang. Als deze zelfregulatie niet tot stand komt, spreken we van zelfregulatie falen. Hierbij hoort ook het ervaren van een...Show moreBij het naleven van gedragsdoelen is een vorm van zelfregulatie van belang. Als deze zelfregulatie niet tot stand komt, spreken we van zelfregulatie falen. Hierbij hoort ook het ervaren van een setback, een terugval in het naleven van een gedragsdoel. Om de kans op setbacks zo klein mogelijk te maken, moeten we begrijpen hoe individuen reageren op deze setbacks. In deze thesis wordt onderzoek gedaan naar het belang van gedragsdoelen en welke psychologische constructen invloed hebben of worden beïnvloed door het ervaren van een setback. Deze thesis onderzoekt daarnaast het verschil tussen approach-oriented en avoidoriented doelen in relatie tot subjectief succes bij gedragsverandering. Vanuit de literatuur werd verwacht dat doelen met betrekking tot fysieke gezondheid de belangrijkste gedragsdoelen waren. Daarnaast werd als hypothese gesteld dat approach-oriented doelen meer subjectief succes opleveren dan avoid-oriented doelen. Methoden. Met een steekproef van 167 participanten werden verschillende statistische analyses toegepast om antwoord te geven op de drie onderzoeksvragen. De resultaten duiden op een significant onderscheid tussen beide typen doelen, waarbij approach-oriented doelen aanzienlijk hogere gemiddelde scores op subjectief succes vertonen dan avoid-oriented doelen. In de context van de eerste onderzoeksvraag blijkt dat het verhogen of reguleren van wekelijkse sportactiviteiten het meest voorkomende doel is, terwijl het verhogen of reguleren van gezonde voeding het daaropvolgende meest gangbare doel is. De tweede onderzoeksvraag wijst op een algemene positieve perceptie van doelbereiking onder deelnemers, waarbij approach-oriented doelen, zoals het verhogen van gezonde voeding, meer succesvol lijken dan avoid-oriented doelen, zoals het reduceren van alcoholinname. Echter tonen de resultaten aan dat deelnemers die zich richten op het verhogen of reguleren van sportactiviteiten zich over het algemeen niet significant succesvoller voelen dan degenen die zich concentreren op het verhogen of reguleren van gezonde voeding, Conclusie. De bevindingen suggereren dat het streven naar gewenste resultaten een verhoogd gevoel van succes teweegbrengt in vergelijking met het vermijden van ongewenste resultaten. Dit impliceert praktische implicaties voor interventies gericht op gedragsverandering, waarbij een nadruk op approach-oriented doelen een effectieve strategie lijkt te zijn. Echter wijst dit onderzoek op enkele beperkingen, zoals een beperkte steekproefomvang en de mogelijkheid van vertekening door zelfrapportage. Toekomstig onderzoek zou baat hebben bij een representatievere steekproef en longitudinale ontwerpen om een dieper inzicht te verschaffen in deze dynamiek.Show less
Eerdere studies hebben aangetoond dat er een relatie is tussen kritiek van ouders op het kind en externaliserend gedrag bij het kind. Om de negatieve gevolgen van externaliserend gedrag te...Show moreEerdere studies hebben aangetoond dat er een relatie is tussen kritiek van ouders op het kind en externaliserend gedrag bij het kind. Om de negatieve gevolgen van externaliserend gedrag te voorkomen, is het belangrijk om de mechanismen erachter beter te begrijpen. Het doel van dit onderzoek is om te kijken of deze relatie daadwerkelijk bestaat en of een laag zelfbeeld deze relatie versterkt. In een cross-sectioneel onderzoek met 80 kinderen en hun ouder(s), werden ouderlijke kritiek, het externaliseren van de kinderen en het zelfbeeld van de kinderen gemeten aan de hand van vragenlijsten en een interactietaak. De resultaten toonden dat er geen relatie is tussen kritiek van de ouders en externaliserend gedrag van het kind. Ook versterkte een laag zelfbeeld deze relatie niet. Het blijft echter nog de vraag op welke manier deze drie variabelen met elkaar in verband staan en of factoren zoals het geslacht van het kind of verschillen tussen de ouders hier iets mee te maken hebben. Onderzoek hiernaar zou meer duidelijkheid geven rondom dit vraagstuk.Show less
Early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) are persistent dysfunctional beliefs that form in childhood and are thought to underlie chronic and recurring psychopathology. EMSs have been categorized into five...Show moreEarly maladaptive schemas (EMSs) are persistent dysfunctional beliefs that form in childhood and are thought to underlie chronic and recurring psychopathology. EMSs have been categorized into five broader schema domains. Transdiagnostic depressive symptoms entail depressive symptoms observed across various psychological disorders. We studied the relative contribution of the five EMS domains on transdiagnostic depressive symptoms in a cross-sectional within-subjects design. The sample consisted of students from Leiden University (N = 125) participating for course credit or monetary rewards, of which 91.2% were assigned the sex female at birth and 8.8% male (median age = 19, IQR = 2). Participants completed measures of the Young Schema Questionnaire 3 - short form (YSQ-S3) and the DSM-5 self-rated level 1 cross-cutting symptom measure – Adult (DSM-XC). Pearson correlations were inspected between each EMS domain and transdiagnostic depressive symptoms. A multiple regression analysis including the total scores of the five EMS domains as predictors was carried out. Individually, the EMS domains Disconnection & Rejection, Impaired Autonomy & Performance, Impaired Limits, Other-directedness, and Overvigilance & Inhibition were positively associated with transdiagnostic depressive symptoms (rs .451, .365, .289, .298, .345, p < .001), as hypothesized. The joint effect of the five EMS domains was positively associated with transdiagnostic depressive symptoms (Adj. R2 = .18, F(7, 117) = 4.88, p <.001). Interestingly, when holding the other domains constant, only the Disconnection & Rejection domain significantly predicted transdiagnostic depressive symptoms in the model (β = .44, 95% CI [.15, .74], p = .004). The domain groups the beliefs about expectations that one’s needs for security and stability will not be met predictably. Our findings suggest that each EMS domain is positively related to transdiagnostic depressive symptom severity in a university student population. The Disconnection & Rejection domain, relative to the other four domains, seems to uniquely contribute to transdiagnostic depressive symptoms. Future research could test whether identifying and changing the EMSs someone has in psychotherapy could reduce their transdiagnostic depressive symptoms across different psychological disorders. It remains a question if paying specific attention to the Disconnection & Rejection domain in psychotherapeutic treatment could improve the reduction of transdiagnostic depressive symptoms.Show less
Exposure therapy is an effective treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), yet a substantial number of patients fails to reach symptom relief. Therefore, a deeper understanding of the...Show moreExposure therapy is an effective treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), yet a substantial number of patients fails to reach symptom relief. Therefore, a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms may help improve the treatment. Inhibitory learning has been a recently developed approach, stating that new fear associations must be actively developed. One proposed strategy has been that of expectancy violation, in which threat expectancies are actively challenged during exposure. Actively experiencing a mismatch between expectancy and reality is supposed to benefit learning and thus improve exposure success, yet results have been mixed. The aim of this study was to expose the mechanisms of expectancy violation by analyzing the types of expectancies experienced by PTSD patients. Furthermore, the effects of the strength of these expectancies and the extent to which they change in strength during exposure on treatment success was tested. In a clinical assay, participants (N = 60) were randomized across two groups, which both received exposure therapy. The experimental group’s exposure treatment was designed to enhance expectancy violation. In both groups, PTSD symptoms were measured at baseline and follow- up, and threat expectancies were measured right before and right after exposure. Results showed that both threat expectancies and PTSD symptoms reduced significantly. However, baseline expectancy strength did not have a significant effect on the amount of PTSD symptom reduction, both in the total and the experimental group. Furthermore, the amount of expectancy change did not predict PTSD symptom reduction either. A full ranking of expectancy types was provided.Show less
