The Russian invasion of Ukraine has caused the European security order to collapse. In response, the European Union (EU) has begun re-evaluating its security and defence policies. Consequently, it...Show moreThe Russian invasion of Ukraine has caused the European security order to collapse. In response, the European Union (EU) has begun re-evaluating its security and defence policies. Consequently, it is worth examining whether the Russian invasion constitutes a critical juncture for the EU’s security and defence policies. The EU’s main policy in this area is the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), while only formalised in 2009 with the Lisbon Treaty, European security and defence policy has a long evolutionary history. However, much of that history shows neglect and little action to achieve further integration. This study conducts a content analysis of the rhetoric used by the High Representative/Vice President (HR/VP) to determine whether the EU called for institutional stability, constrained change, or abrupt change following the Russian invasion. Additionally, the policy decisions of the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) are evaluated to determine whether changes to European security and defence policy can be categorised as layering, displacement, drift, or conversion. These findings are contrasted with a similar evaluation of the EU’s response to the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea to determine whether the contrast allows for the determination that the Russian invasion constitutes a critical juncture. In line with the hypothesis, there is a stark contrast in the EU’s response between the two cases under evaluation, the rhetoric of the HR/VP shows significant calls for abrupt change and the FAC has agreed upon numerous changes to the CSDP. The findings indicate that the Russian invasion represents a critical juncture for the EU’s security and defence policies.Show less
Over the past decade, Europol has increased its capability to become a hub for EU intelligence exchange. This was found in large part of its strategies, as intelligence sharing became a central...Show moreOver the past decade, Europol has increased its capability to become a hub for EU intelligence exchange. This was found in large part of its strategies, as intelligence sharing became a central tool in the fight against terrorism. In light of this entrepreneurship, the research seeks to explain whether Europol’s information exchange was able to advance more integration in the area of counterterrorism. Through the lens of historical institutionalism, this thesis investigates counterterrorism integration through the concept of path dependence; past actions can possess causal relevance for the future of an institution, changing its initial primacy, towards innovative change. The main hypothesis drawn from this is that Europol’s intelligence-sharing drove counterterrorism into a path-dependent trajectory of integration. Starting from the Madrid 2004 bombings, and ending with the Paris 2015 attacks, the research employs a process-tracing method to track the changes between the two terrorist attacks. It finds that counterterrorism proceeded through a pattern of increase, as Europol proactively expanded its powers to allow more cooperation in the EU and become a central hub for intelligence exchange for counterterrorism.Show less
