Background: The development of executive functions is important for independent, creative, and socially constructive behavior. Despite the genetic predisposition, executive functions are due to the...Show moreBackground: The development of executive functions is important for independent, creative, and socially constructive behavior. Despite the genetic predisposition, executive functions are due to the long-term development also influenced by environmental factors. The specific impact of environmental factors remains, however, unclear. This research focuses on the influence of family factors on the development of executive functions in children. Method: The influence of parents’ educational level, siblings and an educational parent training was investigated in a total of 437 children, between the ages of 8 and 12. During a baseline assessment and a follow-up six months later, executive functions were measured using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). A total of 31 parents where randomly selected to participate in a parent training, where parents learned about the development of executive functions and how they could stimulate this development. Results: Parents’ educational level had a significant small effect on inhibition and working memory and not on cognitive flexibility. There was no significant difference in scores on the executive functions between children with siblings and children without siblings. Finally, the educational parent training showed no effect on the development of executive functions in children. Conclusion: This investigation contributes to a more complete overview of the impact of environmental factors on the development of executive functions. This is important for the development of early interventions to optimize executive functioning in children. Children of higher educated parents showed less problems on inhibition and working memory. In contrast to the expectations, other family factors had little influence on the development of executive functions in this age group. Other environmental factors, such as school, teachers and peers, may play a greater role. Future research should focus on the influence of these other environmental factors in children from eight years old up to young adulthood.Show less
Children with increased global self-worth obtain better school results than children with low self-worth. Therefore it can be beneficial to provide children with a training that can potentially...Show moreChildren with increased global self-worth obtain better school results than children with low self-worth. Therefore it can be beneficial to provide children with a training that can potentially increase their self-competence. The feeling of self-worth is build up from multiple domains, such as in school, with their peers and their performance practicing sports. Executive functioning (EF) is a term containing a variety of learning skills that can help children in their learning process, which can increase children’s feeling of self-worth in their performance at school. The most basal EF inhibition, cognitive flexibility and working memory are researched in this study. The project Talentenkracht aimed at improving EF by training teachers from primary schools to increase explorative learning by asking children more explorative questions. This current study looked at whether the training had a positive effect on EF and whether this effect caused an increase on self-efficacy beliefs in children aged 9 to 12. In total 79 children from two schools participated, of which 46 children from one school were in the group where the teachers were trained and 33 children were from another school and formed the control group. The data was collected with the Amsterdamse Neuropsychologische Taken (ANT) to test EF and Competentiebelevingsschaal voor Kinderen (CBSK) for self-efficacy beliefs. No correlation was found between EF and self-efficacy beliefs at baseline or with changes in scores over time. In addition, there was an increase in inhibition and cognitive flexibility, not in working memory, but no increase in EF caused by the training. Since previous researches show there’s a relation between EF and self-efficacy beliefs and between EF and behavioural problems it’s important to further research the impact of EF on emotional development and how to improve EF with lowest scoring children.Show less
Background: Children in special education are typically characterized by developmental delays and/or deficits in social- and cognitive functioning. These children are coping with problems that are...Show moreBackground: Children in special education are typically characterized by developmental delays and/or deficits in social- and cognitive functioning. These children are coping with problems that are often associated with less developed social cognitive skills. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether children’s intelligence moderated the effect of an educational teacher training on social cognitive functioning in children. Methods: Eighty-six children between 10 and 13 years (54% boys) were recruited from a primary school for special education in The Netherlands. Four classes were randomized to either the teacher training (n = 43) or a passive control group (n = 42). The teacher training program consisted of four two-hour trainings in school given by an experienced clinical neuropsychologist. All children were tested prior to and after the training program with a parallel version of the Sociaal Cognitieve Vaardigheden Test (SCVT) to measure their social cognitive skills. In addition, intelligence data (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) was obtained regarding their Full Scale IQ (FIQ) scores. Results: The results showed that a lower FIQ significantly predicted a lower score on social cognition. After controlling for gender and age, the teacher training did not significantly contribute to the increase in social cognition over time and there was no interaction with FIQ. Conclusion: The results emphasize the need to pay special attention to and foster the social cognitive development in children with lower intelligence. To monitor and hence improve the effects of the teacher training, future research should also monitor changes in teachers knowledge, skills and behavior in addition to the child measures.Show less
Background: Previous studies have revealed a relationship between executive functions (EF), social skills and perceived competence. It turns out that a good development of EF is important for...Show moreBackground: Previous studies have revealed a relationship between executive functions (EF), social skills and perceived competence. It turns out that a good development of EF is important for social functioning. There are explanations for the difficulties relating to social functioning, such as the environment, the economic status, development of EF and the self-image of the child. This study focuses if there is a relationship between executive function and social skills and the influence of perceived competence as mediator between that relationship. Method: 219 children have participated in the current study. These were 120 boys (55%) and 99 (45%) girls between the 4.20 and 12.68 years old (M = 10.35, SD = 1.03). EF were measured with the behavior rating inventory of executive function (BRIEF), the social skills were measured with the social skills rating system (SSRS) and de perceived competence scale for children (CBSK) is used to measure the perceived competence. The relationship between EF, social skills and perceived competence were measured with a Pearson correlation analysis. The influence of perceived competence as mediator is measured with a mediation analysis. Results: the results of this research show that there is a significant relationship between EF and social skills. Contrary to what was expected, perceived competence was not a significant mediator between EF and social skills. Conclusion: This study contributes to the theory and knowledge about the relationship between EF and social skills and perceived competence as mediator for that relationship. The results show that better EF is important for the development of social functioning. So it’s useful to train the EF and social skills by children who have problems with EF and social functioning. A training can improve those skills.Show less
This study investigated whether gender and motivation influence the academic achievement of schoolchildren between the ages of 7 and 12. School achievement was measured using the the “Centraal...Show moreThis study investigated whether gender and motivation influence the academic achievement of schoolchildren between the ages of 7 and 12. School achievement was measured using the the “Centraal Instituut voor ToetsOntwikkeling” (CITO) test for technical reading, spelling and math. Motivation was measured using the “Prestatie Motivatie Test voor Kinderen” (PMT-K). It is a general assumption that girls perform better than boys when it comes to language skills. Boys on the other hand do better in math. This study focused on these differences with an independent t-test. It was also examined with a multiple regression if motivation influenced these differences in school achievement. It was expected that motivation and gender influenced academic achievement. Boys should be better in math and girls in spelling and comprehensive reading. Boys and girls should be evenly motivated. The results showed that boys scored significantly higher on math skills than girls. Surprisingly, no significant differences were found for reading and spelling. Furthermore, no significant differences were found for achievement motivation. However, girls scored higher on the subscales negative social anxiety and social desirability and boys scored higher on positive social anxiety. Social desirability and achievement motivation were significant predictors of spelling and math. This research showed that there is a small difference in achievement between boys and girls and motivation and gender partially influenced these school achievements. This study offers further incentive to investigate gender differences in the school environment.Show less
Abstract This study has examined whether language ability is related to the social skills of children in elementary school and to what extent social cognition plays a mediating role in this...Show moreAbstract This study has examined whether language ability is related to the social skills of children in elementary school and to what extent social cognition plays a mediating role in this relation. For language ability is made a distinction between receptive and productive language. Interventions for stimulating language ability could contribute to a healthy social development. This could diminish or even prevent behavior problems. Based on the administered test material, 61 respondents were included out of the ‘TalentenKracht’ project. The following instruments were used. Language development is examined by means of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, social cognition is examined by means of the Sociaal Cognitieve Vaardigheden Test and the level of social skills is based on the parent questionnaire of the Social Skills Rating System. The participants are aged 9 to 12 and attend elementary school. The results indicate that language ability has a positive effect on social skills. The more developed the language ability, the more developed the social skills of the children. For expressive language, but not for receptive language, a positive effect on social cognition is found as well. However, social cognition does not seem to be a mediating factor in the language ability-social skills relation. This study needs to consider whether using more comprehensive test material than a parent questionnaire for the measurement of social skills, could produce different results. Further research is needed to examine multiple types of language ability, to examine a more comprehensive definition of social cognition and to clarify the role of social cognition regarding the level of social skills.Show less
Starting in 2015, the Dutch youth healthcare system will be decentralized and transformed. To smoothen this transition into a ‘new’ healthcare system it is important to prevent families from going...Show moreStarting in 2015, the Dutch youth healthcare system will be decentralized and transformed. To smoothen this transition into a ‘new’ healthcare system it is important to prevent families from going into intensive healthcare by investing in prevention- or early intervention programmes. In the current study the influences of socio-economic status (SES), parental stress and being an only child on the social competence of a child are investigated. The social competence of a child is divided into two compartments; social behaviour and social cognition. A well-developed social competence is linked to better school results and stronger friendships throughout childhood, while a poorly developed social competence is linked to loneliness and underachievement. The research took place in Den Haag, Noordwijk and Zeeuws-vlaanderen and included 160 participants in the age of 4 to 9. Information was gathered through questionnaires and a test. The results showed no effect for SES. Nor was there an effect for being an only child, which means that children who grow up without siblings do not show a difference in social competence then children who do have siblings. The effect of parental stress on social behaviour in a child showed a significant result. This means that, if parents experience relatively more stress from raising their child, this child shows more problems in social behaviour. When this relationship was more closely examined, it showed that this effect is mainly caused by stress derived from parental experiences of social isolation, problems in attachment, and demanding behaviour in the child. Because of these specific sources of stress it seems as if parental stress ‘merely’ plays a mediating role between some form of (social) anxiety or social isolation within the parent. It seems important to investigate this theory in future research so that prevention- and early intervention programme’s can be adapted accordingly.Show less
Objective This study is a pilot study to investigate the relationship between the teacher training programme of Curious Minds and science learning in pupils aged nine to twelve years. By means of a...Show moreObjective This study is a pilot study to investigate the relationship between the teacher training programme of Curious Minds and science learning in pupils aged nine to twelve years. By means of a multiple mediation model it was explored whether social cognition and executive functions mediate the relation of the teacher training programme on science learning. Gain scores in mathematical performance were used to explain science learning. Methods In this quasi-experimental research sixty-nine pupils were assigned to either the teacher training programme condition (n = 29) or the control group condition (n = 40). A t-test for independent samples was used to explore the unmediated effect of the teacher training programme on mathematical performances. For the mediated effect a bootstrap resampling method (n = 5000) as described by Preacher and Hayes (2004) and Hayes (2009) was used. Mediating variables are social cognition and the executive functions inhibition, cognitive flexibility and working memory. These variables were tested in thirty-eight pupils, by means of the Dutch Social Cognitive Abilities Test (SCVT; Sociaal Cognitieve Vaardigheden Test) and a computerized test battery, which is part of the Amsterdam‟s Neuropsychological Tasks (ANT; Amsterdamse Neuropsychologische Taken) respectively. Results The results did not support the expectations. These data supported the view that the teacher training programme by Curious Minds significantly decreased mathematical performances. The teacher training programme had a positive effect on social cognition skills, though, no credible evidence indicated mediation. Discussion The examinations in this study were well able to make a contribution to knowledge in the neurological and educational climate. This study provided more knowledge in contribution of a training to children‟s executive functions and social cognition, and hence in mathematical learning. This knowledge must be reflected in education systems, and training must be re-examined. It is advisable for future research to examine the effect of the teacher training programme on practical and explorative science aspects, where Curious Mind initially aims for.Show less
Background: Both social cognitive skills and achievement motivation are important for a successful (school)career and a successful social life. Little is known about the exact role of parents in...Show moreBackground: Both social cognitive skills and achievement motivation are important for a successful (school)career and a successful social life. Little is known about the exact role of parents in the development of social cognitive skills and achievement motivation. However, as part of the social learning environment, parents can potentially exert great influence on such skills. Aim: To stimulate the development of social cognitive skills and achievement motivation of children by a parental education program. Method: 62 children (age 9 to 11 years), enrolled in Freinet elementary school, were tested on social cognition with the short version of Social Cognitive Skills Test and achievement motivation with the questionnaire Achievement Motivation Test for Children. Both test were assessed at the beginning (September/October 2012) and end (June/July 2013) of the school year. The parental education program, focused on information about brain development, was implemented around mid-term and required the 27 enrolled parents to do homework assignments with their children. The parents were randomly assigned to the education program (N = 27) or the control group (N = 35). The development of social cognition and achievement motivation was analyzed with a Repeated Measures ANOVA. Results: The social cognitive skills increased significantly in both groups. The training group showed significantly more growth than the control group. There was no difference between the achievement motivation at the pretest and the posttest for both groups. Conclusion: Children can benefit from the parental education program. Parental participation was associated with significant more growth in social cognitive skills. However, for achievement motivation, the parental education program did not sufficiently influence the children during the school year.Show less
Background: Executive functions (EF) and social cognition are essential skills for the developing child. These functions start to develop after birth and continue to develop into adulthood. A...Show moreBackground: Executive functions (EF) and social cognition are essential skills for the developing child. These functions start to develop after birth and continue to develop into adulthood. A general relation between EF and development of social cognition was foundhas been established, but needs to be clarifiedrequires further specification. Objective: The aim of this study was to specify the nature of the relation between EF and social cognition. Hereby investigating differences between subcomponents of EF and the influence of age and gender on EF and social cognition. Also the role of “hot” and “cool” EF and social cognition was investigated, to get a more clear perspective on the development of social cognition in younger children. Methods: The sample existed of 101 children, aged four to nine years old. The measurement instruments were the Behavior rating inventory of executive functioningRIEF (adult checklist) and Amsterdamse neurologische NtakenT (computer-based tasks) for measuring executive functions, and Sociaal cognitieve vaardigehden testCVT for social cognition (story-telling task). Correlation, regression analyses and two-way ANOVA’s were used to analyze the data. Results: There were no significant correlations between the (subcomponents of) EF-scores and social cognition, regardless of a division in “hot” and “cool” EF. The correlations between “hot” and “cool” EF and social cognition were not significant. There was a main effect for age on total BRIEF-scores: F(1,50) = 5.03, p = .02 and total ANT-scores: F(1,93) = 33.75, p = < .00. As well as for the SCVT: F(1,95) = 13.85, p = < .00. The influence of executive functioning as measured with the BRIEF on the development of social cognition was calculated with a regression model: R2=.21, F(1,96)=3.34, p <.05. Which is significant, but just for the predictor age, not EF as measured with the BRIEF. This is the same for ANT scores and social cognition. Conclusion: The relation between EF and social cognition was a lot lower than expected. Age was a significant factor for scores on all three tests. The differentiation between “hot” and “cool” aspects did not clarify the nature of the relation between EF and social cognition. EF did not predict scores on social cognition, although the total regressionmodel was significant due to the effects of age. Further research into the nature of EF and social cognition and a way to deal with the effects of age is required.Show less
This study focuses on the relationship between the three executive functions (EF); inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility and the two aspects of Theory of Mind (ToM); perspective...Show moreThis study focuses on the relationship between the three executive functions (EF); inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility and the two aspects of Theory of Mind (ToM); perspective taking and recognition of emotions, which underlie the social-emotional functioning of 101 children aged four to nine years old who attend mainstream primary schools. EFs were measured using the STS- and SSV task of the Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks (ANT) and the social-emotional functioning was measured using the Social Cognitive Skills Test (SCVT) and the IFE of the ANT. The results show that inhibition has a positive relationship with perspective taking and it also turned out to be the strongest predictor of the three EFs. Besides that it is found that age is an important predictor for perspective taking. In reference to recognition of emotions it is shown that there is a positive relationship with the working memory and inhibition and the working memory counts to be the strongest predictor here. These findings contribute to and offer starting points for diagnostics, prevention and guidance of children in primary education. In addition this study offers tools to further deepen the relationship between EFs and social-emotional functioning and to potentially place it in a different context.Show less
