This thesis problematises the finding that resource-rich rebels do not govern civilians because of their short-term perspectives and fixation on looting which results in predatory behaviour....Show moreThis thesis problematises the finding that resource-rich rebels do not govern civilians because of their short-term perspectives and fixation on looting which results in predatory behaviour. Therefore, this thesis investigates under what conditions resource-rich rebels do engage in rebel governance. I argue that the characteristics of natural resources affect the exploitation strategy of rebels, which comprises extraction, kidnapping and theft. Those exploitation strategies and the presence or absence of armed competition over resource-rich territory, determine the extent to which resource-rich rebels govern civilians. Three rebel groups are analysed through a focused structured comparison in combination with process tracing. The analyses have revealed that rebels who enjoy both a complete and partial monopoly on resource-rich territory have the ability to divert their resources to rebel governance. Further findings have revealed that rebel groups who adopt extraction as an exploitation strategy engages in governance. In particular, rebel groups mobilise civilians to extract resources in order to acquire economic rents as well as establish civilian administrations to impose taxes and provide security and welfare services. To obtain profits from natural resources, rebels depend on civilians for physical labour. Therefore, rebels establish contractual relations with the local population which results in rebel governance. Hence, resource-rich rebels perceive civilians as valuable assets who can sustain their rebellion. These findings provide an intriguing theoretical framework which renders the first tools to unravel the conditions under which resource-rich rebels govern.Show less
This thesis aims to discuss how modern-day sanctions came to be. It argues that sanctions are a direct result of World War One Entente economic and financial policies towards the central powers,...Show moreThis thesis aims to discuss how modern-day sanctions came to be. It argues that sanctions are a direct result of World War One Entente economic and financial policies towards the central powers, which were then repurposed to be used in peace time after the war as an instrument to enforce the will of the newly established League of Nations.Show less
In February 2022, the worst humanitarian and refugee crisis since 1940 unfolded in Europe, following the Russian war against Ukraine (OECD International Migration Outlook 2022, 4). In 2015 already,...Show moreIn February 2022, the worst humanitarian and refugee crisis since 1940 unfolded in Europe, following the Russian war against Ukraine (OECD International Migration Outlook 2022, 4). In 2015 already, Europe had faced a sharp increase in demands for asylum, following the Syrian civil war. Immigrants, refugees and asylum seekers have been generally marginalized in recent years in Europe, through an ‘us and them’ rhetoric. The welcoming of Ukrainian refugees however, demonstrated a never seen before impetus for support and integration, proving the European ability to set up effective and quick responses to humanitarian crisis. Why then, were such means never deployed before? Why did European member-states never demonstrate a similar level of cohesion before? And what does that say about the ways in which the European Commission sets its migration policies? This thesis will shed light on the European Commission’s setting of policy- responses on migration, through a comparative study of the Syrian and Ukrainian migration crises, to explore the potential ‘double-standard’ on refugees.Show less
This paper examines how the Iranian diasporic community in the United States frames the current women-led movement in Iran. In particular, using Erving Goffman’s question of “what is it that is...Show moreThis paper examines how the Iranian diasporic community in the United States frames the current women-led movement in Iran. In particular, using Erving Goffman’s question of “what is it that is going on” to identify whether Ajam Media Collective and the Iranian Diaspora Collective are aware of the many forms of feminism that exist in Iran or whether they continue to enforce the dominant Western feminist doctrine in their framing of Iranian women and their participation in the current movement. In the examination, the focus is on the traditional narratives of the protection scenario and Orientalism to better understand the politics of pity and how the research by Joanna de Groot, Saba Mahmood, and Sara Mameni provides alternative understandings of what it means to be a feminist. Concluding that even though both organizations have a different approach in the framing of Iranian women and their feminism, it becomes clear that the dominant feminist doctrine did influence the diasporic community.Show less
The US embargo against Cuba is the longest-running economic sanctions package that has ever been implemented. This thesis analyses the factors influencing the effectiveness of sanctions in the US...Show moreThe US embargo against Cuba is the longest-running economic sanctions package that has ever been implemented. This thesis analyses the factors influencing the effectiveness of sanctions in the US-Cuba case.Show less
Self-defence against terrorism, it hardly seems possible. Yet in Burkina Faso, groups like koglweogo and dozo are making a valiant attempt. How did these groups become part of the Burkinabe...Show moreSelf-defence against terrorism, it hardly seems possible. Yet in Burkina Faso, groups like koglweogo and dozo are making a valiant attempt. How did these groups become part of the Burkinabe security system?Show less
The advent of Shinzō Abe and Xi Jinping in 2012 as respective leaders of Japan and China amidst a deterioration of Sino-Japanese relations over the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands launched a supposed new...Show moreThe advent of Shinzō Abe and Xi Jinping in 2012 as respective leaders of Japan and China amidst a deterioration of Sino-Japanese relations over the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands launched a supposed new era in foreign policy that is typically characterised by ‘rivalry’ in much of the literature, thereby reinforcing the China Threat paradigm. Some examine Sino-Japanese relations through a material lens and focus on military strength or economic preponderance, whereas relational Constructivists centre on a Japanese ‘Self’ 'identity' in relation to 'Others'. However, these studies take subjects, discursive practices and meanings that are constitutive of foreign policy as a given and uncritically accepts these as true. This is problematic, because rather than questioning the status-quo, their ontological arguments reinforce it. A poststructural analysis on foreign policy discourse within ethical, temporal and spatial dimensions with due consideration for the margins of the political debate brings in an epistemological perspective. This reveals inherent inconsistencies and contradictions that argue against the assumed ‘rivalry’, and continuous production and reproduction of the China Threat paradigm in relational Constructivist literature. This allows for an understanding of foreign policy as a transformative praxis capable of changing the way Sino-Japanese relations are registered, both in theory and in practice.Show less
Russia’s influence in Africa, particularly the Sahel, has been on the rise for the last two decades. On the one hand, it uses official tools of engagement including, diplomatic, economic, military,...Show moreRussia’s influence in Africa, particularly the Sahel, has been on the rise for the last two decades. On the one hand, it uses official tools of engagement including, diplomatic, economic, military, and political methods. And on the other hand, it uses unofficial tools to pursue its foreign policy objectives. This thesis focuses on the various ways in which Russia utilises its Private Military Companies as an unofficial tool, to gain maximum benefits. The theoretical framework of the ‘Racket of Predatory Power’ is used to elucidate the strategies employed by Russia through its PMCs. These strategies include leveraging historical elite ties, security partnerships to secure mining concessions, and conducting disinformation campaigns to gain elite favour. By using Mali as a case study, the thesis examines the key elements of the theoretical framework, including rent control, weakening accountability and legtimisation, to understand Russia’s use of PMCs as a foreign policy tool. The thesis concludes that Russia’s influence on African states is predatory, in the sense that it uses shadow actors like PMCs to repurpose state institutions and derive maximum benefits out of elite relationships.Show less
The war between Russia and Ukraine that started in 2022 came as a shock to most of the world. While the war is still in progress, attempts to prosecute the aggressor have already been set in motion...Show moreThe war between Russia and Ukraine that started in 2022 came as a shock to most of the world. While the war is still in progress, attempts to prosecute the aggressor have already been set in motion. The crime of aggression, which refers to Russia initiating the war, currently falls outside of the prosecuting options within international law. Therefore, the idea was created to set up an ad-hoc criminal tribunal to prosecute Russia’s high officials for starting the war. This thesis examines the factors that influenced the Dutch government’s offer to host a potential criminal tribunal to hold Russia accountable for the crime of aggression. Government documents, policy reports and literature on the interplay between international law and international relations were analysed and provided a basis for the semistructured interviews. The interviews with government officials and professors in international law and foreign policy show that there are multiple factors that influenced this offer. It was found there is a strong relationship between the history of the Netherlands and the foreign policy identity that exists today. The focus on accountability and the fight against impunity strongly influenced the Netherlands’ commitment to aiding the international community, by focussing on their specialty: hosting an international tribunal. The most important factor that could be identified which influenced the offer is the aspiration of the Netherlands to project a foreign policy identity that is linked to hosting international tribunals.Show less
In November 2014, India’s newly elected Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced the “Act East Policy” (AEP), which aims to increase economic and strategic cooperation with Indo-Pacific countries and...Show moreIn November 2014, India’s newly elected Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced the “Act East Policy” (AEP), which aims to increase economic and strategic cooperation with Indo-Pacific countries and deepen cultural relationships. It does so on a regional, multilateral, and bilateral level. Although there is academic literature on this policy, most of the literature looks at the AEP through a realist lens, thereby considering it a mere “balancing” effort against China’s increasing influence in the region. This thesis opts to diversify the literature on the AEP by taking a constructivist approach. In doing so it seeks to understand how the ruling Hindu Nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party’s (BJP) conceptions of India’s state identity have shaped the AEP. Using the value-action framework and process-tracing method, this thesis finds that there are three identities which create values that shape the BJP’s preferences for the AEP. Firstly, the “challenged state” identity gives rise to the ‘increasing national security’ value. The second identity, a “once-thriving civilization”, gives rise to two closely connected values: ‘creating an economically stronger India’ and ‘ensuring India gets its rightful place in the comity of nations and international institutions’. Lastly, the “democracy shaped by Hinduism in a changing Asian landscape” identity gives rise to the ‘establishing a democratic and rules-based international order’ value. However, through assessment of India’s wider foreign policy behaviour this thesis finds that these values do not all carry equal weight. It argues that the pursuit of national security, prosperity and indirectly the pursuit of India’s “rightful place” on the international stage were the main factors leading to the establishment of the AEP. Thus, concluding that the “challenged” state and “once-thriving civilization” identities have more influence on the AEP under BJP rule than the “democracy shaped by Hinduism in a changing Asian landscape” identity.Show less
