Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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A database of Neanderthal raw material transports and fauna from assemblages across Europe has been compiled with the aim to explore the evolution of the Neanderthals’ mobility behaviour with...Show moreA database of Neanderthal raw material transports and fauna from assemblages across Europe has been compiled with the aim to explore the evolution of the Neanderthals’ mobility behaviour with regard to the environment from the beginning of the Late Saalian (191 ka BP) to the demise of Neanderthals (40 ka BP). Mobility, as observed from the lithic transports in the Palaeolithic, is often interpreted as mirroring the social organisation of a group. As the study of Neanderthal mobility normally focuses on the maximum transport distances of lithics, such a methodology is seen as inadequate because three equifinal processes (subsistence activity, social transactions, and semi-random lithic scavenging) can account for these distances. Here, two different indicators of Neanderthal mobility are created based on the transport distances, quantities, and number of utilised raw material sources. These mobility variables and their relationship to the changing environment are then analysed using novel statistical techniques.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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The production of bifacial tools is one of the main technological strategies practiced throughout both the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic of northwestern Europe (MIS 15 – 3; ca. 600-35 ka BP)....Show moreThe production of bifacial tools is one of the main technological strategies practiced throughout both the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic of northwestern Europe (MIS 15 – 3; ca. 600-35 ka BP). Within the broad definition of this tool category, there exist wide variation in morphological and technological properties. Additionally, the occurrence of particular biface types seems to vary, both chronologically, as well as geographically. Nowadays, many archaeologists focus on the steering mechanisms behind the observed variations and in doing so apply different methodologies. The bifacial objects used in this thesis to address these broader theoretical questions come from the southern Netherlands, a thus far marginally explored area when it comes to Palaeolithic archaeology. Published data on bifaces is combined with object registrations in the national database (ARCHIS) and primary descriptions of bifacial objects by the author to form a comprehensive dataset of 122 bifacial objects in total. Primarily, these objects are typologically classified with the help of a synthesized methodological framework that combines the main northwestern European typological traditions. The outcome of this analysis shows that the overall typological variation in bifacial objects from the southern Netherlands is more diverse than currently envisaged, which has direct consequences for the conceptualization of Lower and Middle Palaeolithic occupation of the research area. Consecutively, hypotheses for the observed variations in bifacial tool morphology are explored. Despite the limited chronostratigraphic information available for basically all objects, the combined analysis of associated geological formations, their age implications, and the distribution of particular tool types throughout norhtwestern Europe suggests that chronological differentiation in bifacial tool morphology occurs in the research area. At the same time, this explanation does not seem to fully explain the overall variation. Therefore, the technological aspects of morphological variation are explored as well. Scar pattern analysis is performed on four bifaces and shows that these all display long and extended artefact biographies during which likely different phases of use, re-use and recycling occurred. Based on the technological properties of the overall dataset it is proposed that economizing behaviours, in combination with different functional desires, have strongly affected biface morphology in the research area. The final hypothesis explaining variation is that of socio-cultural interactions. A re-analysis of bifacial tools from Sint Geertruid, previously used in such models by other researchers, in combination with their depositional context shows that the current dataset is unsuited for contributing to supra-regional contemporaneous cultural interactions between Neanderthal groups. This examination of the bifacial record of the southern Netherlands has shown that this material has higher potential for understanding hominin occupation and behaviour in this particular region than is currently being exploited. Finally, some suggestions for how to come to such understandings are proposed.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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The central question of this thesis is how Neanderthals could have successfully hunted and killed medium- and large sized mammals in general, and specifically at nine Western European Middle...Show moreThe central question of this thesis is how Neanderthals could have successfully hunted and killed medium- and large sized mammals in general, and specifically at nine Western European Middle Palaeolithic “megasites”. Investigation of archaeological records is often hampered by a lack of sufficient data, the palimpsest structure of assemblages, imprecise dating and equifinality, which explains the frequent use of additional lines of evidence, amongst which the use of ethnographic studies. For this thesis three data sets have been used based on two types of information; archaeological data and an ethnographic study of modern hunters hunting behaviour. Interpreting archaeological data about Neanderthals by comparison with ethnographic data regarding modern hunters is a controversial approach, and a justification of the use of analogy in this thesis was needed (see chapter 4.3). These investigations resulted in the conclusion that Neanderthals probably hunted in groups and mastered three (drive, ambush without drive and approach) of the five hunting methods that are used by modern foragers when hunting large animals with simple weapons. There are strong indications that Neanderthals exploited the presence of water (river, lake or pond) and specific landscapes for hunting purposes. It has been demonstrated that Neanderthals practiced species and individual prey selection prior to and during hunting and killing and selected specific body parts during butchering activities. No direct archaeological evidence of killing strategies of Neanderthals has been found. It is argued – using analogy - that Neanderthals used killing strategies similar to those of the modern spear hunters of large game. The nine Middle Palaeolithic megasites in Western Europe that have been studied probably formed as a result of repeated killing events. A model for the identification of hunting methods developed in this thesis indicates that at these sites drives were probably the most frequently used hunting method, closely followed by the method of ambush without drive. For the method of “approaching” substantially fewer indications have been found.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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Gaining insight into the origins and nature of fire use in the Palaeolithic has important implications for the understanding of various aspects of hominin behaviour and cognition. Major topics...Show moreGaining insight into the origins and nature of fire use in the Palaeolithic has important implications for the understanding of various aspects of hominin behaviour and cognition. Major topics within the field of fire research include: the timing of the first (controlled) use of fire, fuel use (bone vs. wood) and its relation to different tasks and adaptive strategies, pyrotechnology (i.e. fire use as a tool), and cooking. Within the study of fire use in the Palaeolithic there is a strong reliance on patterns of presence and absence of fire indicators. Therefore, understanding the way in which fire traces are affected by taphonomy and being able to correctly identify them in the Palaeolithic record are important prerequisites for valid interpretations of hominin fire-related behaviour and cognition. While most other post-depositional processes are nowadays taken into account, diagenesis (i.e. chemical processes) is often still overlooked. This is unfortunate since a recent study by Braadbaart et al. (2009) indicated that exposure to alkaline conditions (pH values >7) can severely affect the preservation potential and temperature signal of charcoal in the archaeological record. This will affect interpretations based on patterns of fire indicators, as well as interpretations linking temperatures to specific uses of fire. This thesis aims to contribute to the study of fire use in the Palaeolithic by exploring the influence of pH on the preservation potential and temperature signal of charred bone and wood. Bone and wood samples were charred to a range of temperatures (unheated, 190º, 250º, 340º, 600ºC), and exposed to pH solutions representing acidic (pH 3), neutral (pH 7) and alkaline (pH 12) conditions. The samples were incubated for a period of approximately six months. After incubation, the samples were analysed to determine chemical composition (using XRF and TGA), temperature signal (using TGA and reflectance analysis), and mass loss. Results were compared to existing data on unexposed charred bone and wood. This study indicated that charred bone and wood are affected by all pH values, resulting in mass loss, fragmentation, and colour and consistence changes. Temperature inferences for charred bone, based on TGA and/or colour, were deemed unreliable. Temperature inferences for charred wood, based on reflectance analysis, were only affected under alkaline conditions. Based on these results, it is suggested that more attention should be paid to the influence of pH on the preservation potential of fire remains, and that pH should be recognised as a legitimate cause for absence of evidence of fire use.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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Rescue excavations in the Schöningen open-cast mine (Lower Saxony, Germany), carried out since the 1980s, have led to the discovery of multiple Lower Palaeolithic sites. In 1995, the locality...Show moreRescue excavations in the Schöningen open-cast mine (Lower Saxony, Germany), carried out since the 1980s, have led to the discovery of multiple Lower Palaeolithic sites. In 1995, the locality became world-famous for the discovery of Palaeolithic wooden throwing spears from the site Schöningen 13 II-4 (known as the ‘spear horizon’), found in association with lithic artefacts and a bone assemblage largely composed of horses. Aside from its archaeological significance, the Schöningen open-cast mine is well-known for its extensive Quaternary glacial–interglacial sequence, spanning the period from the Elsterian Stage to the present, which has been studied extensively. Still, there is ongoing debate on the position of the Middle Pleistocene deposits exposed at Schöningen, and – as a consequence – on the age estimate of the spear horizon and the other Palaeolithic sites from the open-cast mine. This debate relates to a) the interpretation of the stratigraphic sequence exposed at Schöningen and its organic contents, (b) the debate surrounding the age of the Holsteinian Interglacial and its correlation with the marine isotope record, and (c) the debate on the number of interglacials that could have existed between the Elsterian and the Saalian glaciations. A review of the lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and chronometric evidence from the open-cast mine, presented in this thesis, has led to the development of a chronostratigraphic subdivision of the Middle Pleistocene sequence that is in line with most evidence from other sequences in Europe. Three lithostratigraphic units have been defined. They are correlated with the Holsteinian Interglacial and MIS 11 (Unit I), the Reinsdorf Interglacial and MIS 9 (Unit II), and the Schöningen Interglacial and MIS 7 (Unit III). This chronostratigraphic subdivision allows for an age estimate of around 300ka (thousand years ago) for the spear horizon (Schönigen 13 II-4), and an age estimate of around 400ka for the oldest archaeological site from the open-cast mine (Schöningen 13 I).Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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HomininSpace is an agent based modelling and simulation environment for moving hominin groups through a large scale geographical landscape. Changing carrying capacity in a reconstructed...Show moreHomininSpace is an agent based modelling and simulation environment for moving hominin groups through a large scale geographical landscape. Changing carrying capacity in a reconstructed paleoclimate is the ultimate driving force behind dispersal in HomininSpace. Changing temperatures and precipitation levels influence the carrying capacity of the landscape, and are assumed to be the most influential parameter in the mobility of ancient hominins in the underlying model. This research combines for the first time an environmental reconstruction driven by the results from isotopic measurements with a year by year demographic model for Neandertal groups moving through North-west Europe. The Neandertals utilize the energy levels from the environment in the form of the meat from large herbivores. The aim is to assess conceptual models underlying the behavior of Middle Pleistocene hominins in fluctuating climatic conditions, including severe stress-inducing environments. The research contributes to understanding past hominin behaviors regarding mobility strategy, dispersal and occupation history within changing environments. Two major types of behavior driving movement were identified and are implemented in the simulations: a dynamic mobility and a static mobility. Dynamic mobility can be best described as hominins following their preferred habitat. Static mobility is an implementation of the source and sink model, where populations stay in the same area and suffer from local extinction when the climate deteriorates and are replenished from remote source locations when conditions improve. Simulations were run from 131 ky BP to 50 ky BP. For 14.948 grid cells (148 x 101) in each of 81.000 timesteps climatic parameters are reconstructed, including elevation, temperature (yearly average, warmest and coldest month values) and precipitation levels. From these values a (grid-based) environment is reconstructed through which groups of hominins move, driven by the inferred abundance of large herbivores, representing the energy levels stored in the local environment. For each simulation different parameters can be set through the user interface implementing different models and hypotheses about hominin behavior. Output of the simulation processes include density maps of hominin presence, density maps identifying areas where hominins died and statistical information on hominin groups including sizes, composition, foraging ranges, resource deficiencies, and ages. Simulations can be started, paused and restarted at any point in time. Results can further include a log file with the key characteristics of the simulation, debug information at a desired level, screen dumps in different formats and a playable movie from snapshots at indicated intervals. Movement patterns of the simulated hominins are matched against archaeological dating information on Neandertal material taken from the literature. This data is collected in a comprehensive database which includes site name and GPS location, material dated, date assigned including accuracy and dating method, reference to the literature, and a confidence level. The archaeological data are included as Checkpoints in Space and Time of which 75 individual sites are included. Simulation results are summarized in key values allowing assessment of the level of agreement between model and archaeology on different aspects.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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Recent discoveries in the Cromer Forest-bed Formation, UK, demonstrated early colonisation of northern Europe. The Mediterranean like environment of Pakefield led to the interpretation that...Show moreRecent discoveries in the Cromer Forest-bed Formation, UK, demonstrated early colonisation of northern Europe. The Mediterranean like environment of Pakefield led to the interpretation that hominins before 500 ka may have been able to colonise northern Europe only under environmental conditions that were familiar to them (Parfitt et al. 2005; Roebroeks 2006). The discovery of archaeological sites at Happisburgh (UK) provided new data that were not in compliance with the ecological signal established above (Parfitt et al. 2010). This thesis presents evidence from Happisburgh Site 1 and Site 3 that indicates early hominin presence in northern Europe before 500 ka in cool and forested environments. Theories that can explain hominin presence in these cooler environments are addressed as well as technological innovations the hominins may have adapted to survive the environment. The coastal perspective theory explains hominin presence in northern Europe due to adaptations to coastal zones which would provide an abundant habitat mix, plenty of resources and a temperate low seasonal climate (Cohen et al. 2012). Technological adaptations to cold winters (below zero) may have been needed, but are not irrefutably reflected in the archaeological record of the Happisburgh sites. The Happisburgh sites have large implications for our understanding of the ecological tolerances and behaviour of early hominins in Europe.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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This thesis discusses the environmental changes in flora and fauna from the Middle Pleistocene site Schöningen 13 II, Germany. The data in this thesis consists of the ecological data from Schö 13...Show moreThis thesis discusses the environmental changes in flora and fauna from the Middle Pleistocene site Schöningen 13 II, Germany. The data in this thesis consists of the ecological data from Schö 13 II as well as faunal data from Middle Pleistocene archaeological sites and data from present day national parks in Europe. This data is used to get insight in species compositions in various types of environments. The archaeological data, comprising flora and fauna, are analysed as an entity to gain insight into the structure of the environmental changes at this site. The environment in Schöningen changed gradually in the four levels, Schö 13 II-1 to 13 II-4 from interglacial optimum to stadial phase with an onset to a glacial phase. The floral data gave detailed indications of fluctuations in the environment, whereas the faunal data showed a more gradual change in the environment. The elements in Schö 13 II-1 are indicative for an interglacial phase, 13 II-2 contains elements of both interglacial and (inter)stadial phases and levels 13 II-3 and 13 II-4 are indicative for stadial contexts. Characteristic for the patterns in species diversity is that it is variable throughout the levels. Schö 13 II-1 and 13 II-3 both show a relatively low diversity, whereas the diversity in 13 II-2 and 13 II-4 is higher, but still not exceptionally high if compared to other Middle Pleistocene sites. These differences in diversity can be explained by potential deformations by taphonomical processes. The non-analoguous patterns in large mammal compositions of the site can be explained in terms of species behaviour and taphonomical processes.Show less