Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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The Quina Mousterian is a Late Middle Palaeolithic technocomplex recognised mainly in Southern and Western Europe. It has been argued that Neanderthal groups developed this technology to cope with...Show moreThe Quina Mousterian is a Late Middle Palaeolithic technocomplex recognised mainly in Southern and Western Europe. It has been argued that Neanderthal groups developed this technology to cope with the decreasing global temperatures and the environmental changes of the last glaciation (Weichselian). The Quina system is so far unattested in North Europe, where the climatic fluctuations derived from the Weichselian glaciation were arguably more pronounced and quicker. This research studies the stone tool assemblage from the open-air surface site of Colmont-Ponderosa (South Limburg, The Netherlands). The techno-typological study of the lithics from the site reveals that some Middle Palaeolithic groups of the region were users of versatile and less prepared technologies, with short flaking sequences to produce blanks with a long use-life potential. The tool typologies of the assemblage are dominated by denticulates and notches rather than “Quina” scrapers. The study of the lithics depicts a strong presence of Quina technology over Discoid and Levallois flaking systems, which are virtually absent in the assemblage of Colmont-Ponderosa. The stone tools from the site show a high degree of reduction and ramification. This is evident in the characteristics of the flakes, modified pieces as well as the cores. This thesis demonstrates that the Quina technology was indeed present at some point in time in the Northern latitudes but it was more focused on the recycling and re-using of tools and blanks rather than on the production of specific tool typologies as is the case in typical Quina sites in Southwestern France, for example. This research further employs a behavioural ecological approach to the archaeological record of the case study to demonstrate that the variability within the Quina entity as portrayed in the assemblage of the site might be related to a specific behavioural pattern consisting of a highly mobile, logistic, and economic lifestyle. This ecological approach to lithic technology further shows that the economic behaviour visible in the lateral and secondary recycling embedded within the technological production cycle, contributed to the creation of the archaeological record, generating a feedback loop in which the archaeological record is shaped by and shapes behaviours. This thesis illustrates that, at some point in time, Middle Palaeolithic groups in Northern Europe were indeed users of the Quina technological system, adding more diversity to the studies that link Northern Europe to a Levallois-based technology, Discoid flaking systems, and bifacial shaping. The presence of the Quina technology in the northern fringes of the Neanderthals’ ecological niche shows the diversity and adaptive flexibility of Neanderthal behaviour at the time of the Weichselian glaciation. This work further proposes that a more behavioural ecological approach to the study of lithic technology can help in understanding the variability within the Mousterian archaeological record.Show less
The Quina flaking system is a relatively new Middle Palaeolithic lithic technocomplex recognized and studied until now only in Southwestern France. It has been argued that this technology was...Show moreThe Quina flaking system is a relatively new Middle Palaeolithic lithic technocomplex recognized and studied until now only in Southwestern France. It has been argued that this technology was developed by Neanderthal groups to cope with the decreasing global temperatures and the environmental changes of the last glaciation. The Quina system, until now, is largely unattested in North Europe, where the glacial climate was more pronounced. Why is a technology evolved for the survival in cold environments absent in regions particularly affected by the glaciation? The presence of this technology in the Northern fringes of the Neanderthals’ ecological niche might shed light on the reasons behind Neanderthals’ technological behaviour. It might further provide important clues for a better understanding of whether the variability in the Middle Palaeolithic archaeological record derives from cultural diversity or functional/technical necessities or other factors. This research identifies, through quantitative and qualitative analyses, and comparative studies of lithic materials, the technological traces of unretouched flakes from the site of Colmont-Ponderosa (South Limburg, the Netherlands). This study confirms that at some point during the last glaciation, the Neanderthal groups were users of the Quina technology. The presence of this technology in the North and at such a distance (around seven-hundred kilometers) from the closest certain Quina sites might be the result of techno-cultural convergence. But it might also indicate the point of origin of this technology, which was later dispersed to the Sout, when the environment became too harsh, or it might indicate a dispersal from the South to the North. To confirm this hypothesis a re-evaluation of other Northern assemblages is necessary: if the Quina technology is present at Colmont-Ponderosa, it could be present elsewhere, overlooked because of the relative novelty of the Quina technocomplex.Show less
Climate change has had an influence on hominin evolution for quite some time and led to several speciation and adaptation events. With the later hominin species climate change has less of an impact...Show moreClimate change has had an influence on hominin evolution for quite some time and led to several speciation and adaptation events. With the later hominin species climate change has less of an impact, and extinction theories for the Neanderthals tend to lean in other directions. Despite this, the role of climate change in the Neanderthal extinction is not clear. Older research tended to be focused on global climate records that might not be representative of the smaller climate differences across highly geographically diverse continents. This research provides an overview of local palaeoenvironmental reconstructions for the period of the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in research from 2015-2021 and focuses on the different proxies and climate factors, the stability of the climate, the scale of the research performed, and the perceived influence of climate change on local Neanderthal extinctions. These will be compared per major region (Iberian Peninsula, Apennine Peninsula, Balkan Peninsula, and mid-latitude Europe) in order to determine if any patterns exist. The results show a diversity in the applied proxies and a general trend of deteriorating climate around the time of the Neanderthal extinction. The majority of the research concludes that climate change did not play a major role in the Neanderthal extinction. Despite this, there are some anomalous locations that do not agree with the general consensus this overview produced. Future research at these locations could provide information to nuance the current picture of climate change or corroborate the overall consensus.Show less
Nowadays, a variety of methods and techniques are applied to study the use of fire by hominins during the course of prehistory. Recent studies, such as isotopic research on heated bone,...Show moreNowadays, a variety of methods and techniques are applied to study the use of fire by hominins during the course of prehistory. Recent studies, such as isotopic research on heated bone, thermoluminescence studies on heated flint, analysis of micro-charcoal preserved in deep-sea cores, anthropological comparisons and theoretical debates provide new insights into this topic. However, the effects of fire on archaeological substrates are still poorly understood. Hence, the aim of this thesis is to shine light on the changes that occur on limestone as a result of intense heat. In order to analyse the thermal alterations on limestone, an experiment was conducted, which consisted of heating 30 limestone rocks at various temperatures and for different amounts of time.Show less
The way that we view data as archaeologists is under constant review, especially in the field of human evolution and our processes of adaptation. An example of this is the concern to not take...Show moreThe way that we view data as archaeologists is under constant review, especially in the field of human evolution and our processes of adaptation. An example of this is the concern to not take absence of evidence as evidence of absence. Further to this we are aware in each archaeological situation there is a chance that we may only ever discover a handful of pieces to the puzzle. It is in this current setting that we are becoming increasingly careful of our interpretations of negative evidence and of how preservation levels affect a record and how it is researched. The merits of investigating sites and landscapes that are yet to produce hominin fossils are being acknowledged. In the spirit of taking advantage of this current state of affairs, it is interesting to ask the question what can ‘non-archaeological’ sites or archaeologically “sterile” landscapes (as in those that are yet to produce signals of hominin presence), or more in general, negative evidence - tell us, if anything, about hominin biogeographic range edges? To investigate this, I ask the question could the north-western edge of the Neandertal biogeographic range as we now think we know it, ever have been extended westwards, into Ireland? There is evidence of a Neandertal presence in Wales, at 230kya, while the first recorded human presence in Ireland is at 12,5kya only. The likelihood of a former Neandertal presence in Ireland is investigated here. The question is approached three fold and focuses on 1) the available pathways to Ireland, 2) the possibilities for a hominin presence in terms of the associated environments and 3) the preservation of Pleistocene deposits which might have encased traces of Pleistocene hominin activities. Britain’s human occupation history is discussed in terms of the location of a source population and possible routes to Ireland via the Irish Sea. Environmental reconstructions relay a climate and environment that is clement at times and one that was capable of supporting a range of mid- to large-sized mammals. Following glacial events some species of flora and fauna were able to recolonize the area. Repeated successful colonization by a variety of mammals has led to suggestions that hominins could have colonized the island too. Severe and repeated glacial action however has removed the majority of Pleistocene deposits from Ireland, leaving the record damaged and extremely limited, and such suggestions difficult to test. At first glance the interpretation of the absence of Neandertal traces in Ireland is not a clear cut issue. There is an available source population, a range of species have colonized and recolonized the area and there is an environment that at times is far from harsh. Leaving Neandertal preference or lack of necessity to one side, the evidence as it stands does not give a definitive reason that their range could not have, even briefly, extended westwards into Ireland. The lack of a Neandertal signal could be put down to an issue of tolerances and preferences or to the lack of preserved sediments and research. This study concludes however that the physical barrier of the Irish Sea appears to be the cause of the absence of a Neandertal presence in Ireland, further palaeogeographic reconstructions of the Irish Sea as well as fieldwork need to be undertaken to test this interpretation in the future. This thesis highlights the difficulties of investigating areas with extremely limited evidence and damaged archaeological records but also gives reasons why we should do it anyway.Show less
In this thesis I examine the ethnographic record of recent arid-zone Australian hunter-gatherers to consider how prehistoric populations may have responded to climate change in similar climatic and...Show moreIn this thesis I examine the ethnographic record of recent arid-zone Australian hunter-gatherers to consider how prehistoric populations may have responded to climate change in similar climatic and ecological settings. The archaeological record of population presence and absence indicates that pulses of territorial abandonment and reoccupation correspond with periods of significant climatic variability, with the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the on-set of modern El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycles during the mid-Holocene being identified as significant periods of increased environmental stress and associated habitat abandonment. However modelling such population processes at a fine-grained level is constrained by the differential preservation of archaeological material, dating limitations, issues with chronological control at some sites, and differences in research intensity. As a result the archaeological record is unclear as to whether such population processes involved habitat tracking to more favourable areas, or alternatively resulted in extinction of local groups in areas that became unviable for continued occupation. My thesis addresses this lack of clarity by relating recent hunter-gatherer drought responses to prehistoric population process evident from the archaeological record. I start with an examination of the Arandic and Western Desert societies to provide a background for establishing how desert hunter-gather groups responded to serious drought in the recent past. I look at the cultural and economic strategies developed by these tribal groups in response to distinct but connected environments, and discuss how differences in social organisation between groups occupying distinct ecological regions shaped drought responses. I investigate the socio-cultural and behavioural mechanisms of desert hunter-gatherers that facilitated habitat tracking and develop a framework based on behavioural ecology models to consider how subsistence and mobility strategies enabled range shifts to neighbouring areas during periods of resource depletion. Where drought forced local group extinction is evident, I identify the constraining factors acting on populations that limited their capacity to respond to changing environmental conditions. I argue that water availability is the major constraint to occupation of arid environments, with access to reliable water sources and foraging areas available from water points being a precondition of occupation for both recent and prehistoric arid-zone hunter-gatherers and the main factor limiting population distribution. I propose that extensive social and economic networks linking groups, who were dependent on one another for access to water and resources, were crucial for successful occupation of the Australian desert during the historical period and relied on critical population size, particularly during periods of climatic instability. While the precise social organisation and subsistence strategies employed by prehistoric hunter-gatherer groups is invisible in the archaeological record, I hypothesise that such social and economic networks were likely equally crucial to the survival of prehistoric hunter-gatherers. In the event that critical population size dropped below the threshold for maintaining such networks, continued occupation of marginal environments was unviable.Show less
The Trinil site became famous through the discovery of Pithecanthropus erectus, now called Homo erectus, in 1891 by Dubois. It is considered as an important starting point in the history of...Show moreThe Trinil site became famous through the discovery of Pithecanthropus erectus, now called Homo erectus, in 1891 by Dubois. It is considered as an important starting point in the history of paleoanthropology and therefore a key site for the study of the evolution of humankind. After Dubois finished his excavations in 1900, it was Selenka in 1907 who tried to confirm the important findings by additional excavations at the same site. Later research by Soeradi et al. (1985) and recently by Joordensand colleagues. (2009, 2015), showed that the site still is interesting and can evoke unresolved questions concerning dating of the first hominins on Java as well as their environmental contexts. The main goal of this thesis was to assess the potential the site still may have for future paleoanthropological research, in order to solve still remaining questions on dating and the biotic and abiotic environment of early hominins at Trinil. Therefore the existing (mainly published) excavation data produced by the teams of Dubois and Selenka were summarized, and the site locations were contextualized within a modern geographical map. Historical data, extant photographic material and a 2014 field trip to the location form the core material for this thesis. Based on these data it can be concluded that although most of the site is under water, still some edge structures of the excavations of Dubois and Selenka are visible today. It also can be concluded that it is possible to reconstruct the excavation areas and georeference them on a recent map. However the suggested georeferencing of the trenches has to be confirmed by additional studies at location. The evaluation of the archaeological potential of the Trinil are to access the fossil containing layer, the so called ‘Hauptknochenschicht’ (HK layer), is based on the fieldwork carried out by Dubois and Selenka, and on the geomorphological and geological maps produced by Soeradi et al. (1985). From this it can be concluded that the left bank south of the Dubois and Selenka excavations is the most promising area. Also the left bank directly east of the excavation pits has a reasonable potential. Studying the right bank east of the excavation pits might be interesting as no data are available yet. As there are still unresolved questions concerning the site’s lithostratigraphy, the age of the Trinil fauna, including the Homo erectus material, and the homogeneity of the HK layer, new archaeological/paleoanthropological studies in collaboration with the National Centre of Archaeology in Indonesia are promising and have to be encouragedShow less
The archaeology of the late Paleolithic in the Netherlands studies human behavior during the termination of the last glacial period. These studies focus mostly on lithic material due to...Show moreThe archaeology of the late Paleolithic in the Netherlands studies human behavior during the termination of the last glacial period. These studies focus mostly on lithic material due to preservative conditions. One of the ‘groups’ defined on the basis of this lithic material is the Federmesser-group, or Azilien. This tradition is generally dated to the Allerød warm period (11.800-10.800 BP). This thesis focuses on Federmesser-mobility patterns in the western Meuse area of Limburg, the Netherlands. Specifically, the sites of Horn-Haelen and Heythuysen-de Fransman will be addressed. Here we show that Heythuysen-de Fransman may actually have a different chronological position than was previously assumed. Based on assemblage size, a differentiation was made between Meuse sites and Peelhorst sites, interpreting the sites on the peelhorst as Base camps and the Meuse-region sites as extraction camps. In this thesis it is suggested that larger Peelhorst-sites may actually consist of a palimpsest of various sites related to clustered resources in this area, as opposed to the Meuse area. However, lithic typology does suggest processing activities were more important on the Peelhorst, while hunting activities dominate in the Meuse area. Through the analysis and publications of the lithic inventories of Horn-Haelen and Heythuysen-de Fransman, the author hopes to contribute to the dataset of published upper Paleolithic sites in the Netherlands. The author also hopes to contribute to the larger debate on mobility strategies for the Late Paleolithic, on which little has been published for the Netherlands in the last 20 years.Show less
This thesis presents the results of various analyses of the non-flint stone assemblage from Neumark-Nord 2/2 findhorizon. The excavations that took place from 2004 until 2008 in Neumark-Nord 2 lake...Show moreThis thesis presents the results of various analyses of the non-flint stone assemblage from Neumark-Nord 2/2 findhorizon. The excavations that took place from 2004 until 2008 in Neumark-Nord 2 lake basin, located in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, uncovered a large amount of faunal remains (130.000) and flint artefacts (20.000). Among the flint artefacts, excavators, also, collected 503 stones other than flint. The various rock types present in the assemblage are locally derived as they were found in the glacial till at the base of NN2 basin; However, the non-flint stones were interpreted as ‘manuports’, a term which mainly refers to objects that were transported by human agency and they do not show traces of modification. This thesis deals with this non-flint stone assemblage. The purpose of this study is, primarily, to identify the raw materials present within the non-flint stone assemblage and the determination of the most likely source of the materials identified. To do this, I conducted a technological analysis that included size classification, the identification of the raw materials, the hardness, grain size, natural surface, as well as, the level and type of post depositional surface modifications (PDSM). The second purpose of this study concerns the distinction of non-flint stones that show traces of anthropogenic modification or use. A functional analysis containing variables, such as stone type modification, modification per raw material, fragmentation and a weight distribution will contribute to answer my aim. In addition, the following step is to identify and examine the use-wear traces and correlate the modified non-flint stones with a macro-lithic tool typology. A use-wear analysis with variables, such as type of use-wear, location of the use-wear, as well as, the contact material involved occurred. The results demonstrated the presence of various modified non-flint stones, as well as macro-lithic tools, proving the misconception of these non-flint stones as ‘manuports’. Within the non-flint stone assemblage, macro-lithic tools are present, such as hammerstones and anvils. Moreover, within the modified assemblage, stones were interpreted as flaked stones, simple flakes and heated stones. Depending on the type of use-wear identified, as well as the contact material involved, results shown that percussion activities were taking place at the site of NN2, reaffirming previous assumptions that Neumark-Nord 2/2 was used as a knapping locale.Show less
The aim of this thesis is to re-examine the flint material from a Dutch site named Tienray op den Hees (North-Limburg, The Netherlands). The site should be placed in the occupation history of...Show moreThe aim of this thesis is to re-examine the flint material from a Dutch site named Tienray op den Hees (North-Limburg, The Netherlands). The site should be placed in the occupation history of Northwest-Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum. The re-colonization of Northwest-Europe is closely related to large ecological and climatic changes. The flint assemblage has been examined by Stapert and characterized as Creswellian. An elaborate study on the typo- and technological aspects of flint show that the Tienray assemblage should not be assigned to the Creswellian. On typological grounds, the Laterally Modified Laminar Pieces and technological aspects point into the direction of Federmesser technology. The absence of the en éperon preparation, the low amount of 'lips' and the external platform angles are indications for the use of soft stone percussion for the production of relative straight blade(let)s and blade like flakes. Based on the current geological data, it is not possible to date Tienray op den Hees. However, Tienray op den Hees is located between the Late Pleniglacial terrace level 1 and the younger Holocene driftsands. The large variety of tools suggests that all kinds of daily activitities (e.g. processing of skin and meat) took place at the site. A few LMP show macroscopic impact-traces that can only be the end product by the use of arrow point. Retooling might have took place at the site. None of the so called southern 'Creswellian' sites meet the definition argued by Barton et al. (2003). Unfortunately, sites such as Zeijen and Siegerswoude in the Northern Netherlands are not studied on the technological aspects yet.Show less
Decades of research on the role and frequency of fire use in human evolution have only yielded a blurred understanding of the chronology of anthropogenic fire practise. This predicament has by and...Show moreDecades of research on the role and frequency of fire use in human evolution have only yielded a blurred understanding of the chronology of anthropogenic fire practise. This predicament has by and large resulted from an ambiguous archaeological record, issues of preservation of fire residues, as well as undefined frameworks for the scientific study of anthropogenic fire. In fact, besides stirring scholarly debates that in many ways has produced more heat than light, very little actual progress has been made in the last decade with regards to the general understanding of when and where various fire practices (i.e. controlled, opportunistic, and habitual) have emerged. Instead, variable length chronologies have been developed in which various researchers read and interpret the same evidence of fire in a variety of ways. This thesis sets out to add some clarity to the debate by 1) providing a comparative analysis of the various chronologies, with a focus on testing the strengths and weaknesses of the shorter chronologies against the wider background of fire evidence, i.e. the long chronologies; 2) by examining major challenges hindering any considerable progress in establishing a sound and agreed upon chronological framework for fire use and its subsequent production during the Pleistocene Period; and 3) by providing practical solutions and suggestions on directions for future research.Show less
The estimated body sizes of hominin individuals and the averages per species are used in palaeoanthropological research to gain more insight in the biology, ecology and life history of Homo erectus...Show moreThe estimated body sizes of hominin individuals and the averages per species are used in palaeoanthropological research to gain more insight in the biology, ecology and life history of Homo erectus (Aiello and Key 2002; Foley 1987; McHenry and Coffing 2000). For such inferences to be made, body size needs to be estimated reliably and accurately. The methods that are used in body stature estimation by the use of femur length are evaluated in this thesis. For this evaluation, 110 stature estimation equations for a range of modern human populations were collected. These equations were used for the calculation of stature estimates for 25 hominin fossils with a range of femur lengths. Such an body stature estimate seems like an exact number, but the real estimate must be a range in order to incorporate the probable error. The error is caused by individual factors such as environmental influences during ontogeny, also at play in modern humans (Hauser et al. 2005), the unknown adaptations of the population (e.g., climatic Ruff (1994), energetic Kurki et al. 2008)) and the unknown amount of error arising from the application of an equation based on one species to another. Due to the error that is unknown, a confidence interval is hard to calculate but must be wide at the same time. This makes it difficult to use such estimates in a biologically relevant manner, for example for further calculations on a species' energetics (Smith 1996). The researchers making such calculations will have to address these issues and the danger of compound error. They will be aided by new finds of Homo erectus postcranial material (e.g. Simpson et al. 2008), which broaden the knowledge on the variation in size and proportions within Homo erectus thus helping to minimize error by scraping of a little of the "unknown" and aiding the choice of a reliable estimation method.Show less
Abstract This study focuses on the cognitive inferences that can be made through the production of Palaeolithic adhesives. Whereas this production sequence had been linked through its procedures...Show moreAbstract This study focuses on the cognitive inferences that can be made through the production of Palaeolithic adhesives. Whereas this production sequence had been linked through its procedures and knowledge to several constructs of modern cognitive sophistication for anatomically modern humans, this has not been the case for Neandertals. This study compares adhesive production processes for AMH from Sibudu Cave, South-Africa (Wadley 2010), to those of Neandertals at the palaeolithic German sites of Konigsaue (Koller, Baumer and Mania 2002) and Inden-Altdorf (Pawlik and Thiseen 2011). Results show that the production sequences for the different contexts share many similarities, yet cognitive inferences made for the both contexts lack archaeological as well as cognitive validity. An alternative explanation is proposed in the form of Wynn and Coolidge's (2007b) theory of expertise through apprenticeship and learningShow less
This thesis addresses the issue of climatic and environmental change being the main cause of changes in tool shape or form in Neandertal society. This is approached through several literature...Show moreThis thesis addresses the issue of climatic and environmental change being the main cause of changes in tool shape or form in Neandertal society. This is approached through several literature studies of sites which have been excavated. These sites are Königsaue and Rheindahlen in Germany; Riencourt-lès-Bapaume and Grotte Vaufrey in France; and la-Cotte-de-St-Brelade on the Channel Island Jersey. Using the bordian typological sequence, transitions were determined within sites through changes in assemblage composition. The climatic changes were determined through the study of palynological and zoological material cross referenced to the MIS curve from the chronostratigraphical correlation table. After the analysis was complete the conclusion was that the quality of the information was insufficient to assess the validity of the hypothesis.Show less
Hominin dispersal from Africa has been assumed to have occurred with the emergence of vast grasslands extending across Africa and Asia. However, the possibility of these people being adaptive to...Show moreHominin dispersal from Africa has been assumed to have occurred with the emergence of vast grasslands extending across Africa and Asia. However, the possibility of these people being adaptive to other environments and climates has not been investigated. Determining dietary and water resource niches for selected fossil bovids from Trinil HK, Java from the stable isotopes of the carbonate fraction of their teeth and the skeletal remains of fossil aquatic fauna (Trinil and Sangiran) allowed for the reconstruction of the Pleistocene environment of the site and region. This reconstruction displayed a more diverse environment that Homo erectus adapted to than just a mere grassland.Show less
