This thesis aims to address the increasing necessity for employers to provide policies to support their employees’ parenthood. How successfully parents’ cope with the competing demands of being a...Show moreThis thesis aims to address the increasing necessity for employers to provide policies to support their employees’ parenthood. How successfully parents’ cope with the competing demands of being a working parent can have an influence on their well-being. It was proposed that a relationship between the policies parents use, and their general well-being would be also influenced by several factors, such as the age of the child, the gender of the parent, and the characteristics of the child. 137 working parents accessed an online survey through social media where they would report on demographics and the policies they have used and their level of satisfaction. Additionally, they completed the GHQ-12 for general well-being and Mary Rothbart’s temperament questionnaires, IBQ, ECBQ or CBQ, depending on their youngest’ child age. Linear regression analyses were performed to analyze the potential relationship between policies and well-being, as well as a hierarchical multiple regression analyses for moderation effects. Lastly, results did not support the hypotheses; however, a relationship between policies and general well-being was concluded. Against the initial hypothesis, it was found that parents that make use of a lot of policies are predicted to report lower general well-being levels, presenting a quality-quantity dilemma. This is explained through the parents’ subjective experience of policies. Companies are urged to provide adjusted support to their working parents while taking their opinion and individual circumstances into consideration.Show less
As a fundamental skill in one’s life, reading should be one of the main focuses of children's education, which translates to teachers holding a vital role in the development of reading skills. The...Show moreAs a fundamental skill in one’s life, reading should be one of the main focuses of children's education, which translates to teachers holding a vital role in the development of reading skills. The current study examines whether there is a relationship between teachers’ beliefs about reading and their actual reading practices, as well as the moderation effect of potential barriers that may hinder this relationship. Specifically, we explored the relationship between the perceived severity and responsibility of engaging in reading activities from a young age and the actual time spent reading digital books in the classroom. Teachers from schools in the Netherlands (N = 10) responded to a questionnaire that measured their perceived severity, responsibility, and barriers to reading in class, and also provided their log data with the frequency and duration that they were reading digital books in class. We performed separate regression analyses with each variable of perceived severity and responsibility, and the total reading time, as well as a hierarchical regression analysis with our moderator (perceived barriers). However, we were unable to prove any significant relationship or moderation effect among our variables. We concluded that the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their actual teaching practices is complicated and that it can be influenced by many factors not included in our study, such as time constraints and potential lack of specific teaching qualifications. This, as well as our insufficient sample size, might have impacted our research and resulted in non-significant results. Nevertheless, the current study provides an important starting point for future research regarding this relationship, as well as information for digital book reading; a field with limited available research.Show less
Worldwide many teenagers are online daily. However, the online world is not always a safe place. It is said that the most dangerous online phenomena for teenagers is being exposed to pornography or...Show moreWorldwide many teenagers are online daily. However, the online world is not always a safe place. It is said that the most dangerous online phenomena for teenagers is being exposed to pornography or being pressured into sexual activities. Disclosure about online sexual unacceptable behavior is shown to be a useful act to overcome negative feelings. This study examines to what extend relationships with friends or parents predict disclosure of online sexual unacceptable behavior, and if this connection is mediated by negative consequences. Hypothesized was, that a stronger bond with parents and/or friends helps participants to disclose sooner and that relationship with peers is the strongest predictor. Also hypothesized, is that relationships with parents and friends are negative predictors for negative consequences. The last hypothesis states that negative consequences are a partial mediator between relationships and disclosure. To explore disclosure, 67 participants (8 men, 57 women, 1 nonbinary and 1 gender not shared) stated to have had experience in online sexual unacceptable behavior in an online questionnaire. The analyses used three methods; a binominal logistic regression, an ordinal logistic regression and a multiple regression. Results show that only friendships predicted negative consequences; the better the friendship, the lower the negative consequences. Also, when disclosure happened after a month, better friendships were a stronger negative predictor for negative consequences. Lastly, more negative consequences resulted in later disclosure. These results give more insight that can help teenagers disclosure of online sexual unacceptable behavior.Show less
Children are known to rely on others’ facial expressions to guide their behavior and to use their own affective state to elicit desired reactions. Recent facial mimicry literature argues that...Show moreChildren are known to rely on others’ facial expressions to guide their behavior and to use their own affective state to elicit desired reactions. Recent facial mimicry literature argues that automatic imitation of others’ emotional expressions can be altered based on social motivations. The present study aimed to explore the impact of learning about children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors on young adults’ facial mimicry to children’s sad dynamic displays. Potential moderations of implicit gender bias and time spent with children were also investigated. Our final sample included 25 young adults (80% females) between the ages of 18 and 30. Participants’ frowning responses to primary-school aged children’s video displays of sad facial expressions were measured via facial electromyography (fEMG). Using a within-subject design, facial mimicry was assessed before and after learning about children’s behaviors. Participants additionally estimated a total weekly hours they spend with children and completed an adapted Implicit Association Task (IAT) measuring their implicit gender bias towards children’s behaviors. Results did not reveal any significant change in young adults’ facial responses after learning about children’s behaviors, suggesting that internalizing behaviors did not elicit increased mimicry compared to externalizing behaviors and baseline. An interaction of participants’ implicit gender bias was found with behavior and time (p = .04). Adults with greater positive bias tended to mimic internalizing children more than externalizing children. Lastly, no moderation of time spent with children was found, which might be a result of a lack of variability in the sample. The present study tentatively points towards a moderation of implicit gender bias on adults’ affiliative motivations. Prevention and intervention programs may be needed to increase caregivers and teachers’ sensitivity and responsivity to high risk children’s emotional expressions.Show less
Background: The imitation of someone‘s facial expression is considered an unconscious and automatic response. Preliminary studies suggest that it can be modulated depending on background...Show moreBackground: The imitation of someone‘s facial expression is considered an unconscious and automatic response. Preliminary studies suggest that it can be modulated depending on background information. This study aimed to investigate whether adults‘ facial responses towards facial expressions of children with anger could be affected based on children‘s gender and information about their behaviour (internalizing or externalizing). Method: The sample of the current research comprises N=25 Dutch adults (21 females and 4 males; mean age = 22.72). Bipolar electrodes were placed on the face of the participants to record their facial electromyography (EMG) reactions. Firstly, baseline adults' facial reactions towards facial expressions of children with anger were collected. Next, participants received information about the children‘s externalizing or internalizing behaviour. Lastly, participants observed the same children‘s facial expressions of anger to test the impact of children‘s gender and information about their behaviour (internalizing or externalizing) on facial mimicry. Results: The children‘s gender and information about their behaviour (internalizing or externalizing) did not influence participants‘ emotional responses towards the children‘s faces with anger. Conclusions: The statistical analysis showed that adults‘ facial reactions towards children‘s facial expressions did not alter based on children‘s gender and information about their behaviour. However, it would be interesting to replicate the study with a sample from a less liberal society and check if the results would be the same.Show less
Abstract Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder, characterized by deficits in sociability, behaviour and communication. Children with autism spectrum disorder often face...Show moreAbstract Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder, characterized by deficits in sociability, behaviour and communication. Children with autism spectrum disorder often face eating difficulties. Those difficulties might be accompanied by disruptive behaviours. Individuals with autism and their families might therefore be negatively influenced by such eating difficulties. The aim of the present research was to examine the interventions available in the literature in order to treat eating difficulties children with ASD display. Therefore, the following research questions were formulated: What interventions exist for treating eating difficulties in children with ASD? What techniques are effective in treating eating difficulties in children with ASD? Are interventions that include parents more effective in treating eating difficulties in children with ASD compared to those that do not include parents? To answer the research questions, a systematic literature review was conducted. The PICO system was used to establish the search term of the review. The quality of the selected studies was assessed by two independent reviewers, using a combination of methodological quality assessment tools. Regarding the first research question, eleven interventions were available for eating difficulties in children with ASD. The other two research questions failed to be answered. No specific technique was found as effective in treating eating related difficulties, yet the combination of techniques was used among the studies. Reinforcement accompanied by other techniques, constitutes promising results. None of the studies compared interventions which include parents and not include parents. Based on this, it is recommended that further research is needed to be performed, provided with more rigorous research designs in order to test the effectiveness of techniques and parental component in the interventions treating eating difficulties in children with ASD.Show less
In recent decades, the integration of digital media into early childhood literacy practices has gained prominence. However, research indicates that despite the varied benefits of shared digital...Show moreIn recent decades, the integration of digital media into early childhood literacy practices has gained prominence. However, research indicates that despite the varied benefits of shared digital book reading for parent-child dyads, only a small percentage of families incorporate digital books into their shared reading routines. This narrative review aims to explore the differences in parental beliefs regarding shared reading between print and digital books. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of ten studies published between 2012 and 2023 that examined parental beliefs and shared reading involving these two different book formats. Through our literature analysis, we identified four themes that encapsulate parents' distinct beliefs about shared reading with print and digital books (i.e., functionality, mediating role, cognitive and emotional engagement, norms and preferences). According to the parents in our study, print books are perceived as educational tools supporting language and literacy development, while digital books are viewed primarily as sources of entertainment. Parents play a more active role in mediating shared reading with print books, while digital books are seen as more self-sufficient. Print books foster deep cognitive and emotional engagement, while concerns arise regarding potential distractions and overstimulation with digital books. Overall, parental beliefs and preferences about shared reading are influenced by the societal norms and parents’ past experiences. Understanding these parental beliefs is crucial for educators and storybook developers, as it informs the design of effective and engaging reading experiences for young children in both print and digital formats.Show less
Child abuse is a big problem in the Netherlands. A big group of children is structurally exposed to (severe) child abuse. Several risk factors can contribute to the development of child abuse...Show moreChild abuse is a big problem in the Netherlands. A big group of children is structurally exposed to (severe) child abuse. Several risk factors can contribute to the development of child abuse within families. This study aims to investigate whether several aspects of parenting are able to predict the severity of child abuse within families. The sample consisted of 627 Dutch parents that have recently experienced child abuse within their family. The parents filled in self-report questionnaires about themselves, their children and their experiences with child abuse under the supervision of student-researchers. Topics covered in the questionnaire were, among others, the experience of child abuse within the family, the way situations were handled, the level of experienced parenting stress, the level of warmth and involvement shown to the child(ren) and the professional help that the family received. Results showed that the level of parenting stress that parents experience is a positive significant predictor of the severity of child abuse within families. The level of warmth and involvement that parents show towards their children appeared to be a negative significant predictor of the severity of child abuse. However, the level of parental warmth and involvement did not seem to play a significant role in the relationship between parenting stress and severity of child abuse. Gender of the parent was a nonsignificant predictor of the severity of child abuse and did not seem to play a significant role in the relationship between parenting stress and severity of child abuse. The results of the study show that parenting stress can be an important risk factor for severe child abuse, while parental warmth and involvement may be an important protective factor. It is important to take these aspects into account when offering professional help and in future research.Show less
Child maltreatment is an age-old, common problem with a variety of short-term and long-term consequences. Child maltreatment can even have an impact on future generations, resulting in the...Show moreChild maltreatment is an age-old, common problem with a variety of short-term and long-term consequences. Child maltreatment can even have an impact on future generations, resulting in the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment. Despite the gravity of the consequences there remains few to no effective interventions to disrupt the vicious cycle of child maltreatment. To develop effective interventions, it is crucial to conduct research on specific factors that may contribute to the intergenerational transmission. Therefore, this study aims to explore the mediating role of emotion recognition in the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment. This investigation takes into account the differences between abuse and neglect and considers the influence of gender. A total of 237 participants (96 men, 141 women) from 63 families were assessed for their experiences of perpetrating and experiencing abuse and neglect through self-report measures. Moreover, they performed an emotion recognition task, which involved the gradual presentation of photos displaying various emotional expressions, ranging from neutral to intense. Findings from this investigation confirm the intergenerational transmission of both abuse and neglect, with abuse exhibiting a stronger transmission compared to neglect. Unexpectedly, emotion recognition did not serve as a mediating factor in the relationship between experienced and perpetrated child abuse and neglect. However, emotion recognition did reveal a significant association with perpetrated neglect. Additionally, the control variable of gender was found to be linked to perpetrated neglect. These outcomes underscore the significance of distinguishing between abuse and neglect, as well as considering gender differences in the context of intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment. Future research focusing on a exploration of all aspects of emotion processing may provide greater insight into the underlying mechanisms of the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment.Show less
Gender stereotypes have a profound impact on individuals' lives, shaping behaviors, emotional expressions, and career paths from an early age. Even if not overtly discussed, these stereotypes...Show moreGender stereotypes have a profound impact on individuals' lives, shaping behaviors, emotional expressions, and career paths from an early age. Even if not overtly discussed, these stereotypes manifest implicitly through actions and language choices. Facial mimicry, (in this study: Corrugator supercilii and Zygomaticus major) reflecting empathy and feedback, can unveil these implicit biases. This study probes whether contextual cues about a child's behavior elicit gender-stereotyped facial mimicry reactions in adults, and whether emotions influence these responses. The research engaged 26 participants (77% female, age M = 22.72) in an electromyography (EMG) exploration. Initially, participants viewed children's happy, sad, or angry expressions. Contextual information about a child's externalizing or internalizing behavior followed. A posttest replicated the initial phase. Interestingly, contextual information didn't yield distinct facial mimicry responses. However, gender-based analysis revealed that participants showed heightened zygomaticus major muscle activation when observing girls with internalizing behavior compared to boys with internalizing behavior. This effect was not evident in the corrugator supercilii muscle or externalizing behavior. Gender and emotion analysis highlighted congruence between zygomaticus major activation and anger in girls with internalizing behavior. The findings imply a negative attitude of adults towards internalizing and externalizing behavior of children. Results also validate the stereotype linking girls to internalizing behavior, but also the gender stereotype association that anger is not linked to girls. Interestingly, no gender bias surfaced among boys' facial mimicry in behavior or emotions. However, low statistical power and unreliable zygomaticus major measurement could have affected the outcomes. Further research is needed to establish in larger samples.Show less
Throughout time it has been shown that victim blaming can have multiple negative outcomes. However, in the past, studies about victim blaming have mostly focussed on victim blaming in sexually...Show moreThroughout time it has been shown that victim blaming can have multiple negative outcomes. However, in the past, studies about victim blaming have mostly focussed on victim blaming in sexually unwanted physical behaviour.This study has looked at online sexually unwanted behaviour, to give insight into the entire scope of victim blaming and not just the physical side. This was done by having participants fill out a questionnaire about, amongst other things, demographic information, victim blaming and personal experience. Regarding victim blaming, participants were given three scenarios in which a nude photo is sent and spread and had to indicate how much they agreed on blaming a certain party for spreading the nude photo and also for the sender’s unhappiness. It was researched which party is held mostly accountable in general and which party is held mostly accountable when different scenarios are presented. Besides, it was explored whether the latter differs between men and women and between participants with experience with online sexually unwanted behaviour and participants without such experience.Show less
Child abuse is a big problem in the Netherlands. A big group of children is structurally exposed to (severe) child abuse. Several risk factors can contribute to the development of child abuse...Show moreChild abuse is a big problem in the Netherlands. A big group of children is structurally exposed to (severe) child abuse. Several risk factors can contribute to the development of child abuse within families. This study aims to investigate whether several aspects of parenting are able to predict the severity of child abuse within families. The sample consisted of 627 Dutch parents that have recently experienced child abuse within their family. The parents filled in self-report questionnaires about themselves, their children and their experiences with child abuse under the supervision of student-researchers. Topics covered in the questionnaire were, among others, the experience of child abuse within the family, the way situations were handled, the level of experienced parenting stress, the level of warmth and involvement shown to the child(ren) and the professional help that the family received. Results showed that the level of parenting stress that parents experience is a positive significant predictor of the severity of child abuse within families. The level of warmth and involvement that parents show towards their children appeared to be a negative significant predictor of the severity of child abuse. However, the level of parental warmth and involvement did not seem to play a significant role in the relationship between parenting stress and severity of child abuse. Gender of the parent was a nonsignificant predictor of the severity of child abuse and did not seem to play a significant role in the relationship between parenting stress and severity of child abuse. The results of the study show that parenting stress can be an important risk factor for severe child abuse, while parental warmth and involvement may be an important protective factor. It is important to take these aspects into account when offering professional help and in future research.Show less
Introduction. The Sexual Double Standard (SDS) entails that women are evaluated more negatively than men for engaging in similar sexual behavior. Gender stereotypes are perpetuated through the...Show moreIntroduction. The Sexual Double Standard (SDS) entails that women are evaluated more negatively than men for engaging in similar sexual behavior. Gender stereotypes are perpetuated through the language used by parents in conversation with their children. In this study, SDS-related gender messages parents pass on toward their children will be investigated. Methods. This research was conducted with 99 families consisting of a father, a mother and their fifteen-year-old child. Parent’s gender messages were measured through gender vignettes. During an interview, children read vignettes to their parents, regarding adolescents’ promiscuous behavior, which parents had to respond to. Positive and negative evaluations were coded. Associations between the parent’s sex, the child’s sex and the sex of the child in the vignette in relation to parent’s gender messages are being measured through three-way ANOVA’s. Results. A significant main effect was found for the sex of the child in the vignette on parent’s gender messages. Overall, more positive evaluations are given about boys than about girls. Fathers with a son give more positive evaluations about boys than fathers with a daughter. Fathers with a son give more positive evaluations about boys than about girls. Discussion. These findings suggest that parents pass on implicit gender stereotypes that are in line with the SDS by being less positive about girls than about boys. Especially fathers with a son pass on implicit gender stereotypes to their child that are in line with the SDS. These findings provide insights in the subtle gender messages through which parents pass on implicit gender stereotypes.Show less
The purpose of this research was to examine the role of fathers’ sensitivity and marital satisfaction in developing children’s externalizing problem behavior and to gain more understanding into...Show moreThe purpose of this research was to examine the role of fathers’ sensitivity and marital satisfaction in developing children’s externalizing problem behavior and to gain more understanding into this relationships by investigating the possible mediation of fathers sensitivity. Previous research has shown that children develop less externalizing problem behavior when their fathers are more sensitive towards them and when their fathers are satisfied with their marital relationship. Including fathers in the current research is unique because of the limited availability of research about the role of fathers in children’s development. The data for this study is collected by home visits and questionnaires from one hundred fathers and their two oldest children aged between three and six years old. To be included in this study fathers needed to be born in the Netherlands and speaking the Dutch language fluently. The results revealed that fathers’ higher marital satisfaction is related to less externalizing problem behavior, but only for the second child. The marital satisfaction and sensitivity of the fathers were not related. The fathers’ sensitivity was also unrelated to the externalizing problem behavior of both children. There was no mediation of sensitivity between the marital satisfaction of fathers and the externalizing problem behavior of both children. It is important to improve such research and study the interaction of fathers with their children. Because more knowledge about the influence of fathers’ marital satisfaction on the interaction with the child could help to reveal more information about parental traits that fathers possess that could influence children’s overall development. We suggest that follow-up studies including fathers from different social classes and ethnicities could shed more light on the influence of fathers’ sensitivity and marital satisfaction on the development of externalizing problem behavior in children.Show less
