Figurines are some of the most commonly found artefacts in Neolithic sites across the Near East. These objects have often stimulated colourful interpretations, focussing primarily on stylistic...Show moreFigurines are some of the most commonly found artefacts in Neolithic sites across the Near East. These objects have often stimulated colourful interpretations, focussing primarily on stylistic elements of the anthropomorphic subjects. Such elements, like their perceived femaleness accompanied by voluptuousness, have historically been deemed as directly linked to concerns with fertility and pregnancy, which led to the assumption of the figurines being ritual objects and representations of deities, often labelled as ‘mother- goddesses’. These interpretations essentially generalize the entirety of the figurine assemblages of the Neolithic world, and erase the possibilities of in-depth analysis of these objects. This thesis takes on a different approach, with the belief that a comprehensive analysis that aims to understand these objects should first of all focus on the assemblage of a single context (namely a single site in a given chronological frame), covering the full ‘life-span’ of the figurines within such spatial, chronological, and cultural boundaries, starting from the context of deposition, the process of manufacture and the possible uses. Stylistic observations should only be considered in association to these aspects just mentioned, in the case of possible patterns highlighting the meaning and uses of these objects. A comparative analysis of two or more assemblages could be introduced at a second stage of analysis, within pertinent geographical and chronological boundaries, in order to highlight possible differences and similarities. This approach is what was applied for the research of the figurines of two Neolithic sites of the Lake District in Western Anatolia: Hacilar and Höyücek. These sites, broadly dated to the Late Neolithic period (ca. 6,400 – 6,000 BC), present a significant corpus of figurines, which amount to 72 for Hacilar, and 84 for Höyücek, with the aims of investigating their contexts of deposition and their manufacturing processes in order to highlight possible meaning and uses that were associated to these emblematic objects withi the individual sites and in a broader regional context. The structure of this research will start with an introductory chapter on the Neolithic in the Lake District (Chapter 1), followed by a theoretical chapter that will discuss the history of figurine studies, and will frame the theoretical approach preferred for this research. The datasets of Hacilar and Höyücek will be discussed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4, which will then be compared in their results in Chapter 5. Finally, the conclusions of this research will be presented in Chapter 6. This research has shown that the figurines of Hacilar and Höyücek had highly dynamic meanings and uses, even within the same sites, which on the one hand shows how inherently flawed the past research has been, and on the other it opens up new avenues of research around aspects like the manufacturing process, which have barely been actively studied in figurines.Show less
The ERC-Synergy project Nexus1492: New World Encounters In A Globalising World is, amongst others, investigating past activities in the indigenous Caribbean. One of these activities was the...Show moreThe ERC-Synergy project Nexus1492: New World Encounters In A Globalising World is, amongst others, investigating past activities in the indigenous Caribbean. One of these activities was the production of pottery. This thesis aims to investigate the chaîne opératoire of pre-colonial pottery through studying the 'act' of incising and punctating ceramic vessels during the Late Ceramic Age. This research was executed through the macroscopic analysis and comparison of 35 Meillacoid and Chicoid pottery sherd samples with 44 experimentally manufactured clay-slabs which were incised and punctated with 16 different experimental tools of various material types. The archaeological samples which were studied in this research are all originating from the pre-Columbian archaeological site of El Flaco, Dominican Republic. An inland site situated along the 'Ruta de Colon' and at the southern foothills of the Cordillera Septentrional at a distance of approximately 20km from the ocean. The main focus of this research is the potter's toolkit re-creation, comparing archaeological sample sherds with experimental clay-slabs with the goal of figuring out which tools were probably part of the potter's toolkit for the sake of incising and punctating ceramic vessels and which were not. Other variables like the dryness of clay vessels at the time of incising and punctating and the different possible gestures or motions are also discussed in this study. Preliminary conclusions include, but are not limited to a probably extensive toolkit with many tool-types as possible utensils for producing specific incisions and punctations, with tools from the category plant matter (read small wooden sticks and twigs) as the most important part of this toolkit. Additionally, it seems plausible that incisions and punctations were more likely to be applied to pre-colonial pottery on a relatively plastic clay, as opposed to a drier vessel.Show less
In this thesis the Iron Age Italic armament subcollections of two Dutch museums have been investigated. These two museums are the Allard Pierson Museum (APM) in Amsterdam and the Rijksmuseum van...Show moreIn this thesis the Iron Age Italic armament subcollections of two Dutch museums have been investigated. These two museums are the Allard Pierson Museum (APM) in Amsterdam and the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (RMO) in Leiden. The goals of this thesis were to identify each object in the subcollections, analyse the information that came from this research, find out how both subcollections have emerged, discover the use both museums made of their subcollection and to find out what the position of each museum in the ongoing debates on the acquisition and display of unprovenanced antiquities is through the scope of these small subcollections. The results are that both subcollections emerged through relatively similar causes; a combination of coincidence, the supply of these objects on the art market and a somewhat failed acquisition focus. Each museums has used their subcollection differently; the APM always have had many objects on display, grouped together typologically, while the RMO took a small selection from their subcollection and displayed them in more culturally divided exhibitions. While exhibiting these objects both museums had put on display objects that were only barely researched, if they had been researched at all. All objects of both museums that have been acquired after 1970 were bought legally, although it can be argued that some of these acquisitions are not very ethically responsible. Based on the acquisition history of both museums they kept themselves to the ICOM Code of Ethics since the 1990s-2000s, while still displaying the objects without pre-1970 ownership history. Therefore they do not belong to the Renfrew-Brodie side nor to the Boardman-Cuno side of the unprovenanced antiquities debate. They are positioned between these two parties, siding with Refrew and Brodie on the acquisition part, but with Boardman and Cuno on the display of these objects. It must be stressed that because of the small sample it appeared that there were only antiquities with a pre-1970 ownership history in the RMO, while in previous research it was already concluded that the RMO does have unprovenanced antiquities bought after 1970 in its collection. Therefore it is suggested that for comparable future research a bigger sample should be used to avoid similar situations. The final conclusion of this thesis is that both museums have acquired objects with incomplete ownership histories, and put these objects on display having only very limited information on these objects to inform the visitors. Therefore it can be said that they were “Exhibiting the Unknown”.Show less
In chemical analyses studies of archaeological ceramics, high phosphorus concentrations are found regularly. Over the past decades multiple hypotheses regarding the origin of these high levels have...Show moreIn chemical analyses studies of archaeological ceramics, high phosphorus concentrations are found regularly. Over the past decades multiple hypotheses regarding the origin of these high levels have been given, concerning the manufacture, use and burial environment of the ceramics. By focussing on how the phosphorus is distributed within the ceramic body and in which (mineral) form(s) it occurs, this thesis aims to gain a better understanding in the origin of these high phosphorus concentrations. This, in order to determine the potential of ceramic phosphorus analyses for archaeological research. A selection of ceramics with high levels of phosphorus was taken out of assemblages from four archaeological sites in the Netherlands: Maastricht Cannerberg (LBK), Voorschoten De Donk (middle and late Neolithic), Zandwerven (middle and late Neolithic) and Nijmegen Kops Plateau (Roman). Their chemical composition was analysed using XRF, after which an optical analysis using polarizing light microscopy and fluorescence microscopy was carried out. Multiple deposits with different optical properties were found within the voids of the ceramic body. SEM-EDX was used to analyse the chemical composition of these deposits, as well as the chemical composition of the ceramic fabric itself. This study demonstrates phosphorus is present in large concentrations within the deposits in the voids, while the ceramic body has much lower concentrations. Since these voids have been formed during or after the firing process of the ceramics, there are no indications for accumulation of phosphorus during the manufacturing process of the ceramics. The SEM-EDX analysis of the deposits indicates the presence of different phosphate compounds, containing Ca, Fe and/or Al. No visible traces of chemical weathering were found within the ceramics, indicating the Al-phosphates, present in some of the deposits, did derive from the burial environment. Given that there are several different deposits that contain high phosphorus concentrations, there are potentially multiple mechanisms involved in this phenomenon.Show less
In the north-east of Jordan lies the badia, a harsh and barren landscape that can be divided in the basalt uplands of the harra and the gravel plains of the hamad. Although the area seems...Show moreIn the north-east of Jordan lies the badia, a harsh and barren landscape that can be divided in the basalt uplands of the harra and the gravel plains of the hamad. Although the area seems uninviting, it holds a wealth of archaeological remains. The Landscapes of Survival project is one of the several research projects that studies these remains, and focusses on the pastoralist archaeology of the Safaitic time period in the Jebel Qurma region. A large part of the archaeological record at Jebel Qurma is made up of rock engravings. Part of these rock engravings contains depictions of weaponry. This thesis aims to shed light on the relationship between these weapons and the people that once carved them using iconographic research, literary sources, ethnographic accounts and epigraphic evidence. The broad main question “what can the depictions of weapons on the rock art of Jebel Qurma tell about the people that once lived here?” will be answered using sub-questions that aim to classify weapon types, look at weapon trade networks, identify patterns in weapon usage, and place data acquired at Jebel Qurma in a regional and ethnographic framework.Show less
Les Cottés is Palaeolithic cave site located in the Vienne region in South-Western France. It is located near the Gartempe river. Nowadays it is a small river but in the past it influenced the...Show moreLes Cottés is Palaeolithic cave site located in the Vienne region in South-Western France. It is located near the Gartempe river. Nowadays it is a small river but in the past it influenced the environment in the valley. There is evidence that correlates the river to the site in the form of pebbles and flint but virtually nothing is known about the landscape shaped by the river during occupation of the cave. This thesis is an initial research and tries to comprehend the difficult fluvial landscape here. By mapping the fluvial history research questions can be answered regarding the influence of the environment in the Gartempe valley on human behaviour. With an augering transect eight different units were distinguished of fluvial depositions and erosion and showed the existence of two palaeochannels buried beneath the surface. The oldest channel had an infilling of peat and was studied in the form of a palynological research. The general picture, which consisted of Pinus and Betula, dated the infilling to the Allerød or Preboreal period. This was done by comparing it to several other sites in France which include the same environment. The local environment in this period shows that the channel got cut off and was not active anymore in this phase. There was still open water present but the accumulation of peat was in progress. The valley would have been characterised by wetland conditions. Two phases identified in this thesis could be of interest for the research at Les Cottés. One interpretation is that the terrace in front of the site is older than the research at Les Cottés and this means that the Pleistocene surface would be buried beneath current floodplain deposits. This terrace in front of the site could have been used as an overview point. The other interpretation is that the terrace was shaped after the occupation at Les Cottes. This would mean that the relative height difference between the cave and the site was very small. Both interpretations would have an impact on the archaeology. This shows that the Gartempe influences could have been bigger in the past.Show less
The research in this thesis is part of an archaeological study about the excavation of the old graveyard around the St. Plechelmus Basilica in Oldenzaal, The Netherlands. Between 2011 and 2013,...Show moreThe research in this thesis is part of an archaeological study about the excavation of the old graveyard around the St. Plechelmus Basilica in Oldenzaal, The Netherlands. Between 2011 and 2013, 2750 individuals were exhumed from this graveyard, and two atypical mass graves were encountered. A selection of 200 skeletons divided over five matrices , including the individuals from the mass graves, has been studied with advanced scientific methods, including ancient DNA by Forensic Laboratory for DNA Research, Leiden University Medical Center. The meticulously conducted DNA research has resulted in generally very good quality DNA with no indications of contamination and with genetic profiles suitable for genetic kinship testing. Statistical analyses were carried out on the autosomal, Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA data to test for kinship relationships, which resulted in indications of various genetic relationships. This thesis focuses on skeletons from matrix D, including one of the mass graves, consisting of 48 individuals. The DNA research demonstrates no genetic kinship for the six individuals in the mass grave. There were clear indications for kinship for five pairs of individuals from the non-mass grave area of matrix D. This thesis demonstrates the successful use of ancient DNA analyses for reconstructing kinship relationships in an archaeological context.Show less
Sceattas, a silver currency only produced for approximately less than a century, offer tremendous insights into a multi-regional and relatively unregulated currency. While its short-lived...Show moreSceattas, a silver currency only produced for approximately less than a century, offer tremendous insights into a multi-regional and relatively unregulated currency. While its short-lived production may encourage ideas that it played a relatively unimportant role in post-Roman, early medieval Europe, this is not the case. The coinage quickly became an important part of North Sea trade. Merchants, from Northern France, the Low Countries, parts of Denmark, and England all relied on the coins as a medium of exchange. The modern-day Netherlands is home to numerous production sites of sceattas, indicating its importance in the North Sea trade. Two major types of sceattas were most likely produced here, and are both the most numerous types discovered. They are called Series D and Series E or Continental Runic Type and Porcupine Type. This study aims to examine just how widespread the distribution of these types and the other seventeen series found in the Netherlands was on the basis of the evidence in the Numis database up to 2016. Distribution for the coins will be based on a number of variables, namely overall location, this location examined under a historical context, and an examination of find sites compared to the environment of 800 AD. It appears that the distribution is not random over the country but mainly limited to Domburg, a small part of the Central Dutch River area and the Frisian area of Westergo. This relates the coinage to international trade rather than a widespread use in a ‘moneraty economy’.Show less
The relation between archaeology and education contains a paradox. Where archaeologists have advocated the importance of education for archaeology, this advocation has not been adapted by policy...Show moreThe relation between archaeology and education contains a paradox. Where archaeologists have advocated the importance of education for archaeology, this advocation has not been adapted by policy stakeholders, in order to develop archaeology education programs. Three studies in Canada, the United States and United Kingdom have entailed that the relation between archaeology and education has poorly been investigated. This research builds upon the results on the other three studies to start the investigation on the state of affairs on the inclusion of archaeology into primary education in the Netherlands by investigating policy stakeholders perspectives. These values are investigated by interviews among representa- tives of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, provincial heritage institutes and museums, and placed into broader perspective by analyzing the results of monitor surveys on three history and culture education programs, and two legislative restrictions. Then, the combination of interviews and document analysis results in a synthesis where an alternative approach for archaeology education is presented for archaeologists, policy stakeholders and Primary school teachers in the Netherlands . The study ends with the request for further research that is built upon the results presented here.Show less
The purpose of this study is to examine gender bias and stereotypes in history books used in group 5 of Dutch elementary schools. Nine books from six different publishers were sampled that have...Show moreThe purpose of this study is to examine gender bias and stereotypes in history books used in group 5 of Dutch elementary schools. Nine books from six different publishers were sampled that have been used during the school year 2015-2016. Activities of each character from these books are examined individually by looking at the type of activity, the posture of the individual, the position in the frame and the locality. The time frame of the images are from the periods of “hunters and farmers”, “Greeks and Romans”, “monks and knights” up to and including “cities and states”, as defined by the Committee for the Development of the Dutch Canon. Men are overrepresented in general, portrayed in diverse, active and public roles. Women, children and the elderly are underrepresented, and often in gender stereotypical manners. After establishing male bias in the reconstructions, ample archaeological evidence is provided for alternative gender representations in the past. Despite more than thirty years of feminist inspired archaeological research, reconstructions are still androcentric and reinforce current socio-cultural defined gender norms that disadvantages the representation of women and minorities, but men as well. It is imperative that gender archaeology is incorporated in archaeological epistemology, whereby different constituents involved in writing historic curriculum are informed of relevant developments within our science.Show less
This thesis presents a spatial analysis of insula V ii in Roman Ostia, the principal harbour city of Imperial Rome. The Severan and final phase of occupation of the insula are compared with each...Show moreThis thesis presents a spatial analysis of insula V ii in Roman Ostia, the principal harbour city of Imperial Rome. The Severan and final phase of occupation of the insula are compared with each other to gain a better understanding of the architectural and spatial changes that took place between the Severan phase, and the final occupation of the insula. This thesis seeks to answer the following question: How did the spatial organisation of insula V ii change between the Severan phase and the final phase? In order to answer this question, space syntax methods are used. By comparing the integration (real relative asymmetry) and control values of the units in the buildings between the two phases, an estimate can be given of the amount of privacy and the importance of the rooms. This thesis argues that, between the Severan and the final phase, a shift towards more privacy in the city block occured.Show less
Estimating the age of individuals becomes increasingly more difficult with advancing age due to the effects of life history, random individual variation and the genetic framework. This makes it...Show moreEstimating the age of individuals becomes increasingly more difficult with advancing age due to the effects of life history, random individual variation and the genetic framework. This makes it also increasingly more complicated to relate chronological and biological age, and thus to estimate age-at-death above approximately 45 years. In 2015 however, Dr. C.G. Falys and Dr. D. Prangle published a newly developed method to estimate age of older adults specifically, based on the sternal end of the clavicle. The method evaluates the degeneration of three distinct features: surface topography, porosity and osteophyte formation. These features are scored individually, after which these scores are added up to form a composite score, which is used to ascribe an age stage to an individual. This thesis has aimed to test this method on a post-medieval Dutch skeletal collection with individuals of known ages-at-death from the 18th-19th century. The collection originates from a cemetery in Middenbeemster, Noord-Holland, and is well-documented due to the availability of a cemetery ledger and military document describing names, ages, sexes, marriages, etc. of many individuals. Out of the 118 individuals listed in these archival records, 57 individuals were suitable for this analysis (98 clavicles). The overall levels of agreement between the three different observers were calculated using Cohen’s kappa (k), which revealed a relatively low agreement, varying from slight to moderate (k = 0.100 to 0.534). Fortunately, these results did not influence the accuracy of the method greatly, which varied between 87% and 94%, depending on the side chosen to estimate age. Unfortunately the age ranges that are used in the method are too large for the method to be deemed precise. Previously existing methods are however not at all capable of subdividing the 45+ category into smaller stages. Although the age stages are large, the method is thus capable of recognizing the older members within a society and place them into a more specific age class than other methods currently can. The method does need more testing and revising, but can currently be concluded to accurately estimate olders adults’ ages-at-death in Dutch post-medieval collections.Show less
