Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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Towards the end of prehistory, the landscapes of Northwestern Europe developed into carefully organized places that feel more akin to those of historical and modern times. According to Mette...Show moreTowards the end of prehistory, the landscapes of Northwestern Europe developed into carefully organized places that feel more akin to those of historical and modern times. According to Mette Løvschal (2014), these landscapes saw the emergence of lines and boundaries with specific functions and meanings, especially in the Urnfield period (Late Bronze Age – Early Iron Age). This thesis focuses on a number of micro-regions in the Netherlands: Epe-Niersen, Oss and Boxmeer-Sterckwijck. The aim of this study is to gain a nuanced, inter-regional understanding on how these organized landscapes developed in the long term, and what influence older, visual features from the past had on the way people dealt with them in the Urnfield period. Especially barrow alignments are notable. They clearly impacted the way people dealt with these ‘ancestral landscapes’, but in significantly different ways. At Epe-Niersen, the urnfields and Celtic field emerged solely near ancestral mounds outside of the barrow alignment. At Boxmeer-Sterckwijck, the opposite happened: The barrow line itself transformed into a dense urnfield. Thirdly, the barrow line of Oss-Zevenbergen was completely re-structured with the construction of large, monumental burial mounds, scattered urnfield-graves and post alignments. A close association between the funerary landscape and settlements is observed at Boxmeer-Sterckwijck. On the other hand, Oss-North and Oss-Ussen are a striking example of a landscape that lacked any older, visual features before the emergence of settlements in the Middle Bronze Age. Therefore, in the absence of pre-existing lines and boundaries, people ended up creating them themselves, after which they were referred to in similar ways during subsequent occupation phases. This study demonstrates that the past was unavoidable in the organization of landscapes in the Urnfield period. Furthermore, the general succession in which barrow lines, urnfields, Celtic fields and organized settlements emerged was time-transgressive in nature, meaning that they developed at different point in time at each site. Nonetheless, is seems that each region reached a certain ‘tipping point’ were the landscapes inevitably developed into highly organized areas in line with the past.Show less
This BA thesis focusses on one aspect of the burial tradition of the late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age in the South of the Netherlands and adjacent Belgium (1100-500 B.C.). During this period...Show moreThis BA thesis focusses on one aspect of the burial tradition of the late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age in the South of the Netherlands and adjacent Belgium (1100-500 B.C.). During this period of time, the vast majority of the population of North-western Europe was buried in large collective cemeteries; urnfields. Therefore, this period was also known as the Urnfield Period. The deceased were cremated and buried in small burial pits, with or without urns, to which small burial mounds and ring ditches were added. Nevertheless, in different locations, there are examples of burials in which the deceased were buried in much older burial mounds (secondary burials) or changes have been made to these burial mounds (modifications). This concerns an aberrant burial practice with re-use of burial monuments from a distant past. Although this phenomenon has been named in several publications, it lacked further analysis hitherto. This research, which is based on literature review, accommodates such analysis with a further categorization, with the underlying purpose to recover patterns. To achieve the recovery of patterns several things have been researched, among which are the type of burial mounds re-used, the manner in which they were heightened, expanded and cut through, the locations within the burial mounds where the deceased were buried, the type of grave goods that were present, the type of individuals that were buried and the correlation between them. In addition, the potential motivations for this phenomenon have been discussed, to which degree this corresponds with common burials in urnfields and whether this could have been a collective tradition. This has revealed a high degree of diversity in re-use, yet there appears to be indication of specific choices, and in particular two specific patterns have been revealed. Firstly, several individuals were potentially purposefully buried eccentrically within older burial mounds, whereas others were buried in the centre, disturbing the original graves. Therefore, in some cases, one could have been aware that people from a near or distant past were buried in these burial mounds. Secondly, the practice of secondary burials almost exclusively concerned female individuals; at least in the cases with sex estimations. Because this research was focused on aberrant burial practices, the amount number of available samples was, in fact, too small for definitive conclusions. Further research could be directed at the expansion of the research area (e.g. to Germany) and, if possible, to research the (osteological) “raw data” of sites with cases of re-use.Show less
Animal remains that were discovered in cremation- or inhumation graves dating to the prehistory are often interpreted as food offerings for the deceased. Animals are still categorized in human...Show moreAnimal remains that were discovered in cremation- or inhumation graves dating to the prehistory are often interpreted as food offerings for the deceased. Animals are still categorized in human-subject and animal-object categories that interpret animals as an addition to the live of the prehistoric people instead of living beings. Interpreting animal remains from graves with this approach limits the possibility that animals were buried other than food offerings. This traditional view has been questioned by scholars such as Russell and Hill. Their research has concluded that many prehistoric habitants perceived objects in their universe as living and dynamic agents able to make independent and deliberate decisions. Russell has made a subdivision between different animal find categories found in graves. With these categories, he rejects the pre-assumption that animals were only used for their nutritional value and always placed as a food offering in the grave. This thesis tests the approach from Russell and Hill by analyzing faunal remains that were found in the Bronze- and Iron Age graves in the Netherlands. The aim of this thesis is to research if there is a different perspective on how prehistoric people perceived and used animals. For both the faunal remains from the Bronze Age as for the remains from the Iron Age a database is constructed. The faunal assemblage is thereafter analysed and categorized in the following five categories: food offerings (bones from meaty parts of the animal), ornamental grave goods (decorated or perforated objects and hunting trophies), implements (tools), individuals (complete animal skeletons) and the last category contains other uncategorized finds. An overview of animals that were found in Bronze- and Iron Age settlements were presented in this thesis. Animals found at settlements in the Bronze- and Iron Age consist mainly of livestock animals, such as cattle, sheep/goats and pigs. In Bronze Age settlements game animals were found often, indicating that these animals were still part of the diet. In Iron Age settlements game animals were found sporadically, indicating that these were not frequently eaten. Various animal species were discovered in both Bronze- and Iron Age graves. Animals that were found in Bronze Age graves were cattle, sheep/goat, pig, horse, dog, deer, fish, bird and brown bear. Animals that were found in Iron Age graves were cattle, sheep/goat, pig, horse, deer, bird, fish and marten. The results of the comparative analysis between the Bronze- and Iron Age animal remains prove that there is a changing perception of animals demonstrated between the Bronze- and Iron Age. During the Bronze Age, animals were frequently buried as ornaments and individuals. Animals that were buried as individuals were treated as if they were humans. Food offerings to the deceased was not often observed. This could be indicating that some Bronze Age people formed an emotional bond with animals, which is in sharp contrast with the traditional view that animals were only held due to their nutritional value. In the Iron Age on the other hand animals were mainly buried offered as food and less frequently as ornamental- and implements or individuals, which can be interpreted as attempts by family members or friends to ensure that the deceased would not suffer from food shortage in the afterlife. The Dutch Bronze- and Iron Age faunal assemblage indicates a shift in the perception of animals between the Bronze- and Iron Age from a perception that allowed people to bond emotionally with animals to a perception of animals that is focused on their ritual and nutritional value.Show less
During the Early European Bronze Age many axes fabricated out of metal were exchanged over great distances. When an exchange takes place, the value of the object that is subject to the exchange has...Show moreDuring the Early European Bronze Age many axes fabricated out of metal were exchanged over great distances. When an exchange takes place, the value of the object that is subject to the exchange has to be determined in order to get something that is equally valuable in return. This research focuses on the question whether Early Bronze Age axes contain specific perceptible characteristics that could have functioned as a recognisable marker for a specific value. Metric data of 447 axes that were deposited in twelve Early- and Middle Bronze Age hoards in Austria, Germany, Poland and Switzerland (central Europe) are used to see if there are patterns observable in metric characteristics of the axes that could have been used to establish value. By using Weber’s Law, a law in the field of psychophysics that can be used to calculate the perceptible difference or equality of objects, it will be possible to establish whether differences in weight and length between different axes are perceptibly observable or not, and whether the weights of the axes can conforms to metrological systems based on different units of weight. The statistic visualisation programme SPSS is used to visualize the collected data in the shape of boxplots and histograms. The data is compared with known metrological systems dated in later periods in different regions. Patterns in weight distribution of axes based on metrological units of 10 g and 25 g have been recognized in hoards dated at the end of the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age. Based on these results it is possible to state that the attitude towards the value of axes changed. Axes did not longer only contain exchange- and utility value (Early Bronze Age), but also commodity value (Middle Bronze Age).Show less
In this research, 269 Bronze Age sherds are being investigated, originating from house ditches of 16 houses from the site of Bovenkarspel-Het Valkje, which was excavated between 1974 and 1978. The...Show moreIn this research, 269 Bronze Age sherds are being investigated, originating from house ditches of 16 houses from the site of Bovenkarspel-Het Valkje, which was excavated between 1974 and 1978. The sherds were investigated based on eleven steps of the chaîne opératoire. All sherds were divided into fabric groups in a ‘category list’ and examined carefully. Although there are differences in aspect like forming, shaping and surface treatment, there are a lot of similarities as well. The conclusion is that the type of temper alone does not determine the differences between the houses, but the size and the amount of temper added do. A set of pottery is visible in multiple houses. This set contains various kind of vessels that have each their own kind of tempering. A lot of houses have vessels that were not seen elsewhere. It was assumed that houses which occupied longer have more sherds. Finally, an XRF analysis found that three different sources of clay were used. Furthermore, the inside and outside of sherds differs, so it is likely that a different clay was used for the inside and the outside of the vessels or that a chalky clay layer was added.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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During the Bronze Age (BA), in the Southern Netherlands, swords have been systematically surrendered into main rivers for hundreds of years while they are completely absent in coeval burials. Such...Show moreDuring the Bronze Age (BA), in the Southern Netherlands, swords have been systematically surrendered into main rivers for hundreds of years while they are completely absent in coeval burials. Such a sharp pattern was extensively used as a platform to develop hypotheses on the social organization of the communities that performed the rite both at regional and at European level. Being a warrior is considered to have been a threat for the social cohesion of the small and egalitarian BA communities of the Low Countries: therefore, warriorhood must have been a temporary identity which was ‘worn’ when necessary, and then dismissed through the ritual deposition of certain martial paraphernalia (the swords). However, the above-mentioned model does not explain entirely why not all the swords in circulation, but only a few specimens (roughly one every 10 years), were deposited. In order to better understand the selection mechanics, I propose to analyze the possible value-giving events in which these selected items might have been through. Given the nature of the objects, combat constitutes a probable factor governing the selection of these tools for deposition. This thesis aims to illustrate a methodology for the investigation of combat practices, as well as to propose an interpretative framework suitable for gaining insights about socio-cultural aspects drawing upon data on objects’use. Through a combined approach which envisaged an experimental investigation of combat that conciliates realism and control over the variables, and an in-depth analysis of usewear traces on ancient specimens, it was possible to assess the use in combat of archaeological swords. The presence of fresh combat marks together with possible signs of ancient repairs on the swords analyzed suggests that swords have been through more than one cycles of use before being deposited. Furthermore, the incidence and the type of combat traces documented on the archaeological swords analyzed support the thesis of a skillful use of these objects in the past. By interpreting the data through a framework based on practice theory and the related conception of value-through-action, it has been possible to gain alternative perspectives on the phenomenon of deposition and on the social identity of the warrior. Drawing upon the evidence of skillful and continued use of the deposited swords, a multidisciplinary exploration of warriorhood as a practice resulted in a more fixed and socially-structuring picture of this social identity than the one proposed by previous literature providing points of discussion which question the current discourses regarding European Bronze Age society.Show less
The entrance to a house has an important symbolical or mythological meaning in a great number of cultures around the world. When the placement of an entrance differs depending on the region in...Show moreThe entrance to a house has an important symbolical or mythological meaning in a great number of cultures around the world. When the placement of an entrance differs depending on the region in which it is found, it may indicate a different use and symbolic meaning. The aim of this research is therefore to search for functional differences and cultural values in the placement of an entrance using ethnographic examples, and determine whether these differences were also present during the Middle Bronze Age in the Netherlands. Broadly two different kinds of cultural value can be recognised, one that is related to an opposite meaning, or one that has a restricted use. Each of the selected study area’s shares similar constructional, geographical and external conditions with one other study area. The houses from the river area and West-Frisia show strong resemblances in the placement and appearance of the entrances. This could be related to a broadly shared cultural value. In the south, north and east of the Netherlands there does not seem to be a strong consensus related to the appearance and placement of entrances, despite of the similarities seen in the constructional characteristics of the houses, although this may be due to the lack of reliable data from this area. In conclusion, just as is seen in the ethnographic examples, the Bronze Age houses know differences in the placement of entrances related to a functional motivation or cultural value as well.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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Archaeologists still have a lot to learn about the mortuary rituals of cremated human remains from the Bronze and Iron Age. Even though a large sample of burials from these periods contain cremated...Show moreArchaeologists still have a lot to learn about the mortuary rituals of cremated human remains from the Bronze and Iron Age. Even though a large sample of burials from these periods contain cremated remains, the main research focus has been on inhumated remains. Only recently, the importance of cremated remains became clear and the possibilities of investigating cremated human remains started to be explored. Yet, a lot of information might still be derived from these remains. With this thesis, the importance of careful and detailed excavation is studied through an examination of a human cremation burial from the Uddeler Heegde, Apeldoorn. This is done with the aim to study the funerary practices of the burial to its most extent. First, the concept of mortuary rituals is prospected through a modern (European) perspective. The excavation and determination of the case study burial are described in detail, providing a transparent study. By using concepts as personhood, social persona and the dramatis personae theory of Hertz, the relational identities of the deceased are studied. Hypotheses are used to define what mortuary practices could have been possible and which are rather implausible. Overall, this study demonstrates the additional possibilities acquired by high quality excavation of human cremation burials.Show less
This thesis will seek to critically consider the theoretical concept of archaeological waste. The discussion of waste from an archaeological perspective was initially carried out during the...Show moreThis thesis will seek to critically consider the theoretical concept of archaeological waste. The discussion of waste from an archaeological perspective was initially carried out during the nineteen seventies and eighties. Since that time little emphasis has been placed on the study of waste, and how it should be defined. This thesis will revisit many of those ideas in order to determine if they are still relevant to modern archaeological practices. It will also include a study of structural spatial deposition and the potential meanings attached to this action. This information will be used to determine whether there was structural or systematic deposition of waste material in prehistoric communities in the United Kingdom. Focus and emphasis will be placed on evidence uncovered from house ditches, postholes and their associated material from Bronze Age settlement at the sites of Trethellan Farm in Newquay in Cornwall, and the Bronze Age settlement of Ormesby St Michael in Norfolk.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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The purpose of this research is to get more insight into the social significance of Late Bronze Age -Early Iron crescent shaped sickles from the Netherlands. This is done by reexamination of...Show moreThe purpose of this research is to get more insight into the social significance of Late Bronze Age -Early Iron crescent shaped sickles from the Netherlands. This is done by reexamination of several physical characteristics of the sickles, their distribution and their archaeological context. It has turned out that albeit the sickles have many different appearances and they are hard to categorize, they are made out of the same exotic flint type and by proficient flint knappers. In addition, they are all used to cut sods. The sickles mostly occur in landscapes which in the Late Bronze Age -Early Iron age were threatened by water. They seem closely related with the construction of artificial dwelling mounds. Since the sickles are made from non-local flint by excellent craftspeople, people presumably perceived the sickles as special objects. Moreover, the sickles were used to cut sods and sods were used for various purposes that helped people survive in the same region for a longer period. So the sickles made it possible for people to 'confirm their roots'. The absence of complete sickles in settlements and the selective deposition of several collections of sickles, which often have different use lives, support the idea that people were well aware of the sickles special cultural biographies. So albeit the sickles have been perceived as mainly functional objects, this thesis proves that they have several social connotations which can be derived from their cultural biography.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
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This thesis reports on the excavation Oldeboorn, where traces of activity from the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age were recoverd. Due to the good preservation of organic material, especially...Show moreThis thesis reports on the excavation Oldeboorn, where traces of activity from the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age were recoverd. Due to the good preservation of organic material, especially fish bone, and the presence of Veluvian bell beakers, very rare in the northern Netherlands, this site deserves scientific attention. After the excavation by Jan Lanting and Harry Fokkens in 1980 various material categories were subjected to separate analyses. The results of these analyses are collected and contextualized in this thesis. The find material was located at a depth of about 40 cm below the surface, on a Pleistocene sand dune beneath peat deposits. The location of the finds shows no clear separation between the periods. Yet pottery from the Bronze Age is mainly concentrated in the culture layer on the top of the dune. This also suggests that the bulk of the fish bone stems from this period. The high proportion of catadrome fish species and the absence of anadrome fish species indicate that we are dealing here with an extraction camp in the Bronze Age, mainly for catching pike. The presence of Elp-pottery indicates that the site was more connected to sandy Drenthe than to the rest of Holocene Netherlands, especially Holland. 14C dating of charcoal from the cultural layer gives an absolute dating of 1675 ± 43 BC. The pottery from the Neolithic is more evenly distributed across the site. The pottery consists solely of Veluwe bell beakers and pot beakers. Oldeboorn is the most northern location of this type of pottery, while from the nearby Pleistocene Drenthe only beakers of the Epi-Maritime type are known from this period. An unknown proportion of the recovered flint also stems from this period. The find spectrum reflects a full range of activities conducted at this site, and would warrant an interpretation as a normal Bell Beaker settlement. During the Mesolithic the location is also in use. Hearth pits from this period are the only anthropogenic features on the site. The typology of points and the 14C dating of charcoal from the hearth pits places the occupation in the Middle Mesolithic. Whether we are dealing with multiple phases or a single event is impossible to say.Show less
Since the beginning of research on the Indus civilisation of northwest South Asia the issue of social and political organisation has been unresolved. Even basic things such as the bases for social...Show moreSince the beginning of research on the Indus civilisation of northwest South Asia the issue of social and political organisation has been unresolved. Even basic things such as the bases for social status and power are still unclear. The distribution of the Indus stamp seals and their iconography can give us some indication of social organisation within settlements. A more detailed analysis comparing them to different types of artefacts may result in a more nuanced understanding of social and economic hierarchies. This thesis will analyse variation in Indus seals across sites through analysis of an up-to-date corpus Indus stamp seals at the city of Mohenjo-Daro. The spatial distribution of the seals will be compared with the distribution of four types of artefacts linked to social organisation, trade and ideology: figurines, bangles, several types of beads and weights. This will also be reintegrated with architectural data. My hypothesis is that the distribution of seals within cities might be more indicative of their specific function in trade and administration than just the socioeconomic status of the owner. If this is the case, then variation in distribution may reflect different uses of the seals occurring in different areas of Mohenjo-Daro. There is a complex relationship between status, ideology and the expression of that status in the archaeological record. Studying one category of evidence, such as seals, bangles or architecture separate from each other will only give an incomplete picture; these types of data need to be combined to achieve a more complete understanding of them.Show less
In eastern West-Frisia extensive excavations have taken place in the late ‘60, ‘70 and ‘80. The result is that a lot of data is available, but many of these excavations have only been preliminary...Show moreIn eastern West-Frisia extensive excavations have taken place in the late ‘60, ‘70 and ‘80. The result is that a lot of data is available, but many of these excavations have only been preliminary published. Therefore not all information is available or correct. A model made by IJzereef and Van Regteren Altena (1991) of the West-Frisian Middle and Late Bronze Age is based on preliminary data from two sites. Due to more recent excavations, which have been published, there is reason to believe that ‘the model’ needs to be reviewed. This will be executed in this thesis by making an unpublished site publishable; this site is Medemblik-Schuitenvoerderslaan. The struggle of working with 45-year old excavation documentation will be discussed to give other researchers insight in how to deal with this kind of data. The result of this research is a brief overview of the West-Frisian Middle Bronze Age based on three recently published excavations, the elaborated data of an unpublished site and the original model by IJzereef and Van Regteren Altena (1991).Show less
Abstract On sites all over West-Frisia circular structures have been found. There are two types of these; pit circles and circular ditches. Both types are very similar and are found in round, oval,...Show moreAbstract On sites all over West-Frisia circular structures have been found. There are two types of these; pit circles and circular ditches. Both types are very similar and are found in round, oval, figure 8 and cloverleaf shapes. Their dimensions are very similar; an average diameter of approximately 4 m, an average depth of 25 cm and an average width of 25 cm and some of them are closed and others interrupted. They usually contain very few finds if any. What was the function of these circular structures in West-Frisia during the Bronze Age? The hypothesis was that they were used for the temporary storage of grain and possible other crops. This was concluded in an article called ‘cereal in circles’ by Buurman in 1979 and was based on a hypothesis from Bakker (1967; 1977; 2004). Their hypothesis is based on very little data; just a handful of sites with carbonized grain. It seems to be based mainly on an old landscape model and circumstantial evidence. Because of the project ‘Farmers of the coast’, old data is now being reviewed. It has risen some doubt on earlier findings, including this ‘cereal in circles’ hypothesis. Since the 1970’s a lot of new excavations have taken place and some of the old data that was never published has now been digitized. The data from those new excavations more or less confirm the old data. But that also means that there is still no evidence for grain as well. That means that now (2013) over a thousand circular structures have been excavated with just a handful of them containing carbonized grain, which does not really proof the storing of grain anyway. Although there is no real proof against the existing hypothesis, there is in my opinion now enough data not confirming the old theory that there should be at least doubt. It seems unlikely that all the circular structures held the same function. It is quite possible that the circular structures in West-Frisia were used for multiple purposes, which would explain all the different shapes and sizes. The most likely explanation would be that they were simply drains, but that does not explain why they are not found in the Late Bronze Age. All in all it is clear that the true function of the circular structures in West-Frisia during the Bronze Age is still an enigma and therefore a lacuna in our knowledge of this area. Only future research and excavations may solve this mystery. Show less
