Research master thesis | Linguistics (research) (MA)
under embargo until 2025-07-31
2025-07-31T00:00:00Z
While multiple models of language production exist, it remains difficult to find conclusive evidence for one or the other model. The present study is one of the first to incorporate both behavioral...Show moreWhile multiple models of language production exist, it remains difficult to find conclusive evidence for one or the other model. The present study is one of the first to incorporate both behavioral data and EEG data in a native Dutch noun phrase production task to investigate the processing of grammatical gender. We used a picture-word interference paradigm in which speakers had to name a picture while being distracted by a superimposed word. The distractors were manipulated for grammatical gender congruency with and semantic relatedness to the picture names. In separate blocks, participants had to produce either bare nouns, or determiner noun constructions. We found a robust effect of the semantic relatedness effect in the behavioral data, in which targets belonging to the same semantic category as the distractor were named significantly later than unrelated targets. The EEG data on the semantic relatedness effect were less clear, possibly due to opposing ERP components in (partly) overlapping time windows. More importantly, we replicated the gender congruency effect in reaction times, showing that naming latencies were longer for gender-incongruent trials than for congruent trials. This behavioral effect disappeared in bare noun naming. The EEG data showed similar results, in which a more positive peak was found between 385-585 milliseconds for incongruent than for congruent trials, again only in the determiner noun block. The result seems to indicate a P300 effect rather than the expected enhanced N400, suggesting higher conflict resolution processes for incongruent trials. The absence of the gender effect in bare noun naming in both data types suggests that grammatical gender is not automatically accessed or selected in Dutch noun (phrase) production. This in turn has implications for speech production models.Show less
Abstract The connection between hippocampus-dependent learning and the novelty of a previously experienced environment has been investigated through animal research for a longer time. In rodents,...Show moreAbstract The connection between hippocampus-dependent learning and the novelty of a previously experienced environment has been investigated through animal research for a longer time. In rodents, it was found that they showed theta band power while encoding memories, during the initiation of explorative movements. But there has been a scarcity of research looking at these connections in humans. This study aims to investigate the associations between memory types (landmark memory, as well as recall and recognition on an unrelated word learning task) and familiarity of the environment as well as theta bands in the brain. Thirteen men and women took part in this three-day EEG study. On the first day, participant first explored one environment during the exploration phase and later explored another time an environment that was either the same as before (familiar) or a new (novel) environment. On day two, they were then exposed to a new environment (novel condition), if they have seen two times the same environment on day 1, or to an environment that they have already seen on day 1(familiar condition) if they saw two different environments on day 1. On both days they had to complete a landmark memory, recall, and recognition task. On days two and three the participants did a delayed recall and recognition task. The EEG was used during all tasks on days one and two. The results showed that landmark memory was not affected by the novelty of the environment (p = .812). Word recall was also not affected by the novelty of the environment (p = .400), and neither was recognition (p = .227). There was more theta band power during the novel environment exploration than during the familiar environment measured (p < .001). Theta bands were not correlated with recall (p = .783) or landmark memory (p = .231). This study had a small sample, no cultural diversity, and a strict theta band inclusion criterion. Because of that, the results should be interpreted with caution and further studies should include a bigger sample, with different cultures, and perhaps a wider theta frequency spectrum. This study could help closing the gap between animal and human research, as well as create tools to assist people with learning difficulties.Show less
Toen Margaret Thatcher premier van Groot-Brittannië werd in 1979, keken de lidstaten van de Europese Economische Gemeenschap (EEG) hoopvol naar het eiland om een betere samenwerking te...Show moreToen Margaret Thatcher premier van Groot-Brittannië werd in 1979, keken de lidstaten van de Europese Economische Gemeenschap (EEG) hoopvol naar het eiland om een betere samenwerking te bewerkstelligen dan het geval was onder de Labour regering. Zij kwamen echter bedrogen uit: Thatcher bleek vooral de confrontatie op te zoeken. Deze houding is opvallend omdat de Conservatieve Partij in 1975 tijdens het referendum nog veel pro-Europese geluiden liet horen. Deze scriptie kijkt als gevolg hiervan naar de tussenliggende periode, en stelt de vraag in hoeverre het Conservatieve schaduwkabinet van Margaret Thatcher tussen 1975-1979 een transitie heeft doorgemaakt in hun opvattingen over de EEG. Er wordt hoofdzakelijk gekeken naar drie vraagstukken: ten eerste de kwestie van directe Europese Parlementsverkiezingen, ten tweede een brede samenwerking van centrumrechtse partijen in het Europees Parlement, en ten derde de houding van het schaduwkabinet ten aanzien van het Europees Monetair Stelsel (EMS). Uit de analyse komt vooral naar voren dat het Conservatieve schaduwkabinet in deze periode in de oppositie een ambigue houding erop nahield. Aan de ene kant trachtte zij haar pro-Europese imago van de voorgaande jaren te bewaren, en zette zich daardoor actief in voor betere Europese samenwerking. Aan de andere kant speelde de soevereiniteitskwestie een belemmerende rol voor de partij. Bezien vanuit het principe van Britse parlementaire soevereiniteit, waar de Conservatieven zich aan vast klampten, was het nagenoeg onmogelijk zich te committeren aan grote Europese projecten die eind jaren zeventig werden voorgesteld. Daardoor zat het schaduwkabinet in deze periode vast tussen deze twee uitersten. Het gevolg? Het schaduwkabinet bleef zich openlijk graag etaleren als de pro-Europese partner, maar achter de schermen stapelden de kritische geluiden van Conservatieve schaduwministers zich op, onder aanvoering van de partijleider (Thatcher) zelf. Aan de hand van deze scriptie is een nuance geboden op de bestaande literatuur, en is een lacune gevuld in het historisch onderzoek naar deze periode. Verder heeft de scriptie laten zien dat veel confrontaties in de jaren tachtig onder Thatcher teruggevoerd kunnen worden op de problemen die de Conservatieve Partij al had ten aanzien van Europese integratie in de jaren zeventig. Uit de analyse valt te concluderen dat Thatchers' fameuze toespraak in Brugge (1988) niet uit de lucht kwam vallen.Show less
The two most common types of mindfulness are open monitoring (OM) meditation, describing the awareness of internal and external states, and focused attention (FA) meditation, when one fixates on a...Show moreThe two most common types of mindfulness are open monitoring (OM) meditation, describing the awareness of internal and external states, and focused attention (FA) meditation, when one fixates on a single stimulus while avoiding distractions. The effects of mindfulness have been well explored and show many beneficial effects. Theta oscillations, associated with learning and memory, increase during OM meditation. Mindfulness is also positively correlated with the trait novelty seeking, as well as openness to experience (OTE). In previous studies, these three variables have been found to interact. The influence of mindfulness on exploratory behaviour has not yet been explored, and research suggests that mindfulness may increase such behaviour. A sample of 39 participants took part in the current study, which was conducted over two consecutive days. Participants received a brief mindfulness intervention on day one or two, after which they explored either a familiar or novel virtual environment. Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures were recorded throughout. Theta power was found to be higher during the OM meditation compared to the control condition, eyes open at rest, suggesting that the current mindfulness intervention was successful in eliciting a mindfulness state by altering the levels of theta power in the brain. Regarding exploratory behaviour, no significant difference was found between those who experienced the meditation and those who did not. Additionally, no difference was found in terms of exploratory behaviour between those in the novel or familiar environment, after receiving the mindfulness intervention. Some reasons for this may be the nature of the mindfulness intervention being brief or not targeted enough at novelty. Further research avenues include exploring additional brain rhythm fluctuations during OM meditation, the influence of different experience levels with mindfulness on different behaviours, as well as whether age affects the influence mindfulness has on exploration behaviour and novelty.Show less
Low self-esteem is a risk factor for several mental health issues, and it can be formed because of negative social feedback. Adolescents are particularly at risk, since they may be more influenced...Show moreLow self-esteem is a risk factor for several mental health issues, and it can be formed because of negative social feedback. Adolescents are particularly at risk, since they may be more influenced by such feedback than adults and have been shown to adjust their self-feelings more in reaction to negative compared to positive feedback. However, both the age bias and the negative learning bias have not been fully supported by previous research as evidence is contradictory. This study aimed to fill this gap by measuring the degree of change in feelings about the self in response to social performance feedback. In this research, a sample of 75 adolescents (12 to 17 years old) and 145 young adults (18 to 25 years old) underwent a task in which they spoke in front of judges. They then had to evaluate statements regarding their performance and subsequently saw the evaluations of judges on the same statements. A reinforcement learning model was adapted to create affective learning rates (ALRs), which were compared between adolescents and adults and between positive and negative feedback. Additionally, EEG data was gathered and frontal-midline theta (FMT) activity following feedback was compared between groups. This allowed us to assess to what extent such feedback is processed and integrated as a cue for future behavioral performance. This study found no differences in ALR between age groups, but a significantly higher ALR in response to positive feedback for both age groups. This is inconsistent with previous results, and we suggest that might depend on task structure. No significant difference was found in FMT, and we suggest that may be because FMT is more related to expectancy of feedback rather than to its valence. Together, this study indicates that adjustments in self-esteem following social performance feedback may depend more on environmental demands than developmental differences, and that the way such feedback is processed may rely on top-down expectations.Show less
Recent research by Sharon et al. (2020) indicated an activating effect of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) on the locus coreleus noradrenergic (LC-NA) system. Given the...Show moreRecent research by Sharon et al. (2020) indicated an activating effect of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) on the locus coreleus noradrenergic (LC-NA) system. Given the mixed findings of previous research, we replicated this study to validate and extend their results. Twenty-one subjects participated in a repeated measures design using the same no-task paradigm as Sharon et al. (2020). Additionally, we extended the analysis to explore indicators of LC-NA activity in the EEG time domain. We compared EEG activity between sham (earlobe) and stimulation (cymba conchae) conditions. Our analysis found significantly less alpha activity during taVNS compared to sham stimulation. This confirms the finding of Sharon et al. (2020) - taVNS attenuates alpha oscillations. However, we found no differences in ERPs between conditions. This was likely due to methodological limitations that make the design inappropriate for ERP research. Our results support an effect of taVNS on phasic LC-NA activity, but the effect on tonic LC-NA remains unknown. This is discussed from the perspective of using taVNS as an intervention for disorders such as ADHD. Based on our exploratory analysis and literature findings, recommendations are made for future research.Show less
The nocebo effect, which occurs when an inert intervention results in the worsening of symptoms due to negative expectations, affects the experience of pain. Negative expectations may be shaped...Show moreThe nocebo effect, which occurs when an inert intervention results in the worsening of symptoms due to negative expectations, affects the experience of pain. Negative expectations may be shaped through verbal suggestions and classical conditioning, but it is unclear how these learning processes affect anticipatory brain processing related to nocebo-enhanced pain. Therefore, this within-subjects study explored whether stimulus-preceding negativity (SPN), a slow-wave event-related potential component that reflects perceptual and emotional anticipation, would increase in response to cues that predicted high heat pain compared to cues that predicted moderate heat pain. A positive relationship between SPN amplitude and the nocebo effect was expected during evocation. The sample consisted of 36 healthy adults (24 females). SPN was measured from -500 ms to 0 ms relative to pain stimulus onset using electroencephalography, and pain intensity was measured using a numeric rating scale. A nocebo effect was induced through a negative verbal suggestion and classical conditioning. During induction participants learned to associate the sham activation of a Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation device with high pain stimuli (nocebo), relative to moderate intensity stimuli when the device was turned off (control). During evocation only moderate pain was applied. Results showed a significant nocebo effect, p < .001. There was no difference in SPN amplitude between nocebo and control trials in the evocation phase, p = .26. There was a trend towards greater negativity for nocebo trials. There was no relationship between SPN and the nocebo effect during evocation, p = .41. Post-hoc, there was a positive relationship between SPN and pain ratings, p = .002. These results suggest that SPN does not directly reflect anticipatory processing related to nocebo-enhanced pain, but that it does become larger as an individual experiences more intense pain. This finding is clinically relevant because it argues that the estimation of SPN could perhaps aid in the assessment and treatment of pain. Future research should explore SPN further with the use of standardized experimental designs and multiple levels of pain intensity, and with the inclusion of clinical groups.Show less
Although Social Anxiety is well-understood, the neural mechanisms behind this phenomenon are still under debate. Recent research suggests that Frontal Midline Theta power level expression seems...Show moreAlthough Social Anxiety is well-understood, the neural mechanisms behind this phenomenon are still under debate. Recent research suggests that Frontal Midline Theta power level expression seems indicative of the emotional processing of social evaluative feedback. However, it is still unclear what pattern this FM-theta expression follows in Socially Anxious individuals. The FM-theta power responses to social evaluative feedback in Rejection Sensitive people is not investigated thoroughly yet, although recent research points to a clear increase in FM-theta power in responses to unexpected rejection. In the current study, utilizing a social evaluative learning task, we tested whether the construct Rejection Sensitivity could influence the relationship between social anxiety and FM theta power expression in 12 female participants. Social feedback was provided by peers who provided positive social feedback in fixed numbers, creating Peer 1 who would provide positive social feedback in 85% of trials and Peer 4, who would provide positive social feedback in 15% of trials. We also examined which coping mechanisms are utilized more often in both Socially Anxious and Rejection Sensitive population (e.g. self-blaming, other blaming, catastrophizing, rumination, acceptance, refocusing, positive reappraisal, putting into perspective). Correlation analyses revealed a strong negative correlation between Rejection Sensitivity and FM-theta level expression in unexpected rejection by Peer 1, whereby lower FM-theta levels were associated with higher Rejection Sensitivity. A large, positive and significant correlation between receiving unexpected rejection and unexpected acceptance by Peer 4 was observed. Unfortunately, the main question about the influence of Rejection Sensitivity on the relationship between Social Anxiety and FM-theta power as a response to social evaluative feedback, could not be answered due to methodological issues related to a small sample size. These issues also led the analysis of coping mechanisms to be invalid and therefore no results are indicative as to which coping mechanisms are utilized more often. Finally, FM-theta band activity seems to be a servicing as a reactive error correcting mechanism, which might lead to clear responses in Rejection Sensitive people, but not necessary in Socially Anxious individuals, who suffer more from anticipating fears. Therefore, it seems somewhat unsure whether FM theta is completely suitable for the investigation of emotional processing within Socially Anxious people. It is advised for future studies to include a larger sample.Show less
Midfrontal EEG oscillations in the theta (4-8 Hz) band reflect a threat-detection mechanism, which might work differently in individuals with fear of negative evaluation (FNE) due to attentional...Show moreMidfrontal EEG oscillations in the theta (4-8 Hz) band reflect a threat-detection mechanism, which might work differently in individuals with fear of negative evaluation (FNE) due to attentional biases. This study aimed to examine FM theta reactivity to social-evaluation in a probabilistic feedback learning experiment, and possible biased learning processes in individuals with FNE, a hallmark feature in social anxiety. Additionally, the current study explored the possible mediating role of FM theta power in the relationship between FNE and emotion regulation. Fifty-nine undergraduate students (mean age = 20.5 years) participated in the newly developed SELF-profile paradigm. The participants received social rejection or acceptance feedback by (predominantly positive and negative) peers, which was either congruent or incongruent with prior expectations. Results revealed that unexpected peer feedback, regardless of the valence (acceptance or rejection), elicited a significant increase in FM theta power, as did feedback from the most negative peer. No association between FM theta power and FNE was found, and FM theta power did not mediate the relationship between FNE and emotion regulation (positive reappraisal or rumination). Behaviourally, participants had more difficulties in learning the probability of acceptance feedback for the negative peer than the positive peer. Individuals with FNE were slower in predicting acceptance feedback for the most positive peer, and felt more rejected after the experiment. Together, the results provided evidence that individuals with higher FNE seemed to display increased negative affect after receiving feedback and an attention bias towards threat. Furthermore, FM theta power seemed to reflect uncertainty-driven exploration.Show less
Despite the increase of secularism, implicit religious and spiritual (jointly termed “supernatural”) reasoning persists even in individuals who identify as nonbelievers; however, previous studies...Show moreDespite the increase of secularism, implicit religious and spiritual (jointly termed “supernatural”) reasoning persists even in individuals who identify as nonbelievers; however, previous studies have used behavioral implicit measures to examine differences between implicit and explicit belief. The aim of this research was to investigate these differences in atheist and spiritual-but-not-religious (SBNR) individuals using event-related potentials, and explore the N400-effect as an implicit marker of (un)belief. We conducted two studies: Study 1A (N = 101) examined supernatural attitudes and study 1B (N = 109) examined supernatural beliefs. Participants were presented with positive/negative (1A) and belief/disbelief (1B) religious, spiritual, and control statements, and were asked to provide their explicit evaluation (i.e., agree/disagree) of the statements while ERPs were being recorded. The results showed inconclusive evidence of the utility of the N400 as an implicit measure of belief. Specifically, we did not find significant differences between atheists and SBNR individuals in the N400- amplitude between positive and negative (1A), or belief and disbelief (1B) religious, spiritual, and control statements. In light of the lack of statistically significant results, exploratory analyses were performed, and implications and limitations of our study, as well as suggestions for future research, were discussed.Show less
Scientific research seldom focuses on naturalistic approaches of investigating selective attention in sensory modalities, even though being able to selectively pay attention to a stimulus is...Show moreScientific research seldom focuses on naturalistic approaches of investigating selective attention in sensory modalities, even though being able to selectively pay attention to a stimulus is important in real life. The current cross-modal ERP study illustrates the importance of addressing naturalistic environments and tasks in behavioral and ERP research regarding auditory selective attention and cognitive load. Instead of using a standardized cognitive load task, smartphone interactions were used to indicate whether or not someone was engaged in the visual and tactile modality. During the task, a sound with a duration of 50 msec and an interstimulus interval (ISI) of one to three seconds was administered to the participants (n = 14). Following the ideas of load theory, we hypothesized that in the “during smartphone use” condition, there will be a larger N1 peak than in the “while not using the smartphone” condition. There were no significant larger N1 peaks in the “during smartphone use” condition compared to the “while not using the smartphone” condition. A possible explanation for this lack of N1 amplitude modulation could be the difference between the usual unnatural study settings in behavioral and ERP research, where load induced alterations are prevalent, and the naturalistic context of the current study. For future research it would be interesting to investigate cognitive load and selective attention cross-modally in a nonlaboratory setting, with tasks that have been validated to induce cognitive load.Show less
Research master thesis | Psychology (research) (MSc)
closed access
Depression and social anxiety are among the most prevalent and co-occurring mental-health problems related to difficulties in social decision-making and aberrant responses to social reward and...Show moreDepression and social anxiety are among the most prevalent and co-occurring mental-health problems related to difficulties in social decision-making and aberrant responses to social reward and punishment. Processing social feedback and integrating information from negative and positive outcomes are important for adapting behaviors and cognitions accordingly. Thus, in order to better understand the mechanisms underlying affective problems such as depression and social anxiety, it is crucial to investigate how they relate to differences in social feedback processing and learning through social evaluative feedback. This study aimed to investigate whether depressive and social anxiety symptoms in healthy young adults were differentially associated with how individuals learned through positive and negative peer feedback and electrocortical responses to social feedback which would help elucidate the underlying mechanisms of the aforementioned affective problems. Nineteen participants (18-25 years old) took part in a novel social probabilistic learning task while concurrent EEG was being recorded. In this task, participants believed that they received acceptance and rejection feedback from actual peers. In reality, each of the four peers provided computerized feedback with assigned probabilities of 85%, 70%, 30%, and 15% acceptance. The participants showed positive expectancy and positive memory biases. Social anxiety symptoms predicted a lower positive memory bias. The participants learned the probabilities in the expected direction for each peer through trial-and-error over the course of the task. No differences in learning were observed in relation to depression and social anxiety. As expected, the time-frequency theta (4- 7 Hz) power was larger following unexpected rejection, particularly, in comparison to expected acceptance. However, delta power (1-4 Hz) was largest for both expected acceptance and unexpected rejection. There were no interactions between time-frequency responses and individual differences in depression and social anxiety. Our findings demonstrate that healthy young adults show positive expectancy and memory biases for social evaluative situations with peers which can be reduced by the level of social anxiety one experiences. These could be informative for professionals practicing in mental health such that they can target the way socially anxious individuals recall events in treatment. This study also shows that individuals use positive and negative social evaluative feedback to adapt their feedback expectations from others.Show less
Electroencephalography (EEG) has been used for over a century to measure electric potentials in the brain. The brain signals can be used in a Brain Computer Interface (BCI) to control machines,...Show moreElectroencephalography (EEG) has been used for over a century to measure electric potentials in the brain. The brain signals can be used in a Brain Computer Interface (BCI) to control machines, like prostheses or exoskeletons. In the last decades, consumer-grade EEG devices have become available. Their performance and reliability, however, does not match that of medical EEG equipment. In this project, the possibilities for classification with such a consumer-grade EEG device, the EMOTIV EPOC+, were explored. The main challenge was to overcome the large noise and nuisances in the EEG signal to be able to classify brain states induced by motoric tasks and sensory stimuli. The effect of several preprocessing techniques was studied: Independent Component Analysis, a denoising autoencoder, and adaptive filtering with an autoencoder. For the classification, various machine learning approaches were proposed to analyse the EEG signals, ranging from a naive Bayes classifier to Deep Convolutional Neural Networks. Furthermore, the effect of motivating the structure of a neural network for this classification task was investigated. It was found that using the spectral features of the EEG signal as a motivation for the structure of neural networks helps classifiers identify brain states that are not classified by other types of neural networks.Show less
Deze scriptie toont de opinies die verschillende Nederlandse kranten uitdroegen ten tijden van de Britse toetreding tot Europese Gemeenschappen in de jaren 1969-1973. Er is onderzoek gedaan naar de...Show moreDeze scriptie toont de opinies die verschillende Nederlandse kranten uitdroegen ten tijden van de Britse toetreding tot Europese Gemeenschappen in de jaren 1969-1973. Er is onderzoek gedaan naar de publicaties van De Telegraaf, De Tijd, Trouw, Algemeen Handelsblad, NRC Handelsblad, de Volkskrant, Het Parool, Het Vrije Volk, Nederlands Dagblad en De Waarheid. De studie toont aan dat de kranten uiteenlopende meningen verkondigden en dat zij verschilden in de wijze waarop zij hun opinie aan het publiek brachten. Er is vastgesteld dat de meerderheid van de onderzochte nieuwsbladen de Britse toetreding steunden. Het onderzoek heeft echter ook uitgewezen dat De Waarheid een zeer uitgesproken tegenstander was, dat het Nederlands Dagblad onverschillig tegen over de Britse aansluiting stond en dat de redactie van Het Vrije Volk verschillende meningen uitten.Show less
