The Late European prehistory is a fascinating age. Indeed, the continent incurred in a series of incredible changes, both technological and social, with the introduction of new metallurgic...Show moreThe Late European prehistory is a fascinating age. Indeed, the continent incurred in a series of incredible changes, both technological and social, with the introduction of new metallurgic activities and productions and the rise of new dominant and macro-regional cultures. Within this frame, there are two, highly different situations in Central Europe: on the one hand, the last chapter of the European prehistory which corresponded to the Late Iron Age, was characterised by a cultural fragmentation between the European regions; whereas, on the other hand, few centuries earlier the Urnfield System unified the Central Europe under a common cultural phenomenon. Therefore, in a short period of time, Europe underwent an incredible regional differentiation, which constituted the latest image of Europe towards the beginning of the current era. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to understand what happened between these two chronological poles, i.e. what happened to Central Europe before the Late Iron Age: the objective is hence to explore the existence and the evolution of the roots of the cultural fragmentation in the previous periods, which are the Urnfield age and the Early Iron Age. The analytic means will be the bronze weapons, since they constituted one of the most important cultural indicators of regional identities during the Late Bronze Age. Indeed, the Urnfield System featured a martial society, therefore the weapons were important symbols and, thus, they might have followed important cultural developments. Because the technological aspect was quite homogeneous in the Urnfield period, the weapons are analysed through their typological aspect, i.e. their fashions and decorations. In this thesis, the cultural regionalisation will be analysed through three important territories, due to their cultural role in the Late Iron Age: they are the Villanovan area, the Hallstatt region, and the Lusatian territory. Each one of them is explored over the two periods taken in considerations, in order to outline its evolution over time and its relationship with the other two regions. The logical assumption that one might think about, is that, as the majority of the historical and cultural phenomena, the cultural fragmentation witnessed by the Late Iron Age, has to have been a gradual process that took several centuries to acquire the final shape that characterises Central Europe at the end of its prehistory. Therefore, one might think that the Urnfield System featured an elevated degree of inner homogeneity, whereas the following Early Iron Age was characterised by a higher cultural regionalisation, if not total fragmentation already. However, this thesis seems to point toward an interesting and unexpected discovery: the regional differentiation, between the Urnfield period and the Late Iron Age, was not a gradual process. Indeed, surprisingly and contrary to the belief of many authors, the Urnfield System has been revealed less homogeneous than one might have thought, whereas the following period, i.e. that Early Iron Age which is so close to the fragmented Europe of the Late Iron Age, is much more homogeneous, not only than the expectation, but also than the unitarian Urnfield System itself. This means that, after the collapse of the latter, the post-Urnfield cultures, following the typologies of their predecessors, continued to develop new weapons, which clearly resembled the Urnfield models: therefore, the Early Iron Age Central Europe was an evolution and thus a continuation of the Urnfield System. Such new cultures, despite the end of the previous unitarian cultural phenomenon, became even more homogeneous, leading to the conclusion that, the cultural fragmentation witnessed in the following period, must have abruptly taken place at the beginning of the Late Iron Age, and that it hadn't roots in the Urnfield period, nor especially in the Early Iron Age.Show less
This thesis investigates the application of computational methods in landscape archaeology, focusing on the Early Iron Age path network of Central Crete, particularly in the key sites of Lyktos,...Show moreThis thesis investigates the application of computational methods in landscape archaeology, focusing on the Early Iron Age path network of Central Crete, particularly in the key sites of Lyktos, Hersonissos, and other secondary ones in the same area. It addresses key methodological and theoretical issues by employing the Python programming language for geospatial analysis and incorporating phenomenological perspectives to enhance understanding of ancient human-environment interactions. Recent advancements in Landscape Archaeology have been significantly influenced by phenomenological approaches introduced by scholars like Tilley and Ingold, who influenced by the philosophers of phenomenology redefined the term “landscape” by emphasizing the embodied and experiential aspects of it. Based on their work, archaeologists like Llobera and Wheatley challenged the quantitative treatment of landscapes and further explored the dynamic relationship between humans and their environments, highlighting the importance of movement and perception in landscape archaeology. Geographic Information Systems have been instrumental in landscape studies, but often reduce landscapes to static and quantitative data. This thesis critiques these limitations and proposes a novel methodological framework using Python for Least Cost Path analysis. This approach offers greater flexibility and insight into the computational processes behind geospatial analysis, addressing issues of conventional GIS tools by providing a detailed and customizable examination of movement patterns. The main research questions are if Python-based LCP analysis can produce results comparable to those from traditional tools like QGIS and if this computational approach, enhanced by phenomenological perspectives can offer deeper insights into the social and path network of Early Iron Age Crete. The findings reveal that Python is a robust tool for geospatial analysis, producing results similar to QGIS while offering enhanced flexibility and detailed examination of computational processes. This methodology highlights the importance of understanding the underlying processes behind geospatial tools and demonstrates Python’s potential for archaeological research. By integrating phenomenological ideas, this thesis interprets the computational results within a broader archaeological context. This approach considers different parameters of how ancient people might have perceived and navigated their surrounding landscape. The analysis uncovers a potential socio-cultural network in Central Crete, with modeled paths suggesting continuity with the earlier Minoan path network of the area and offering insights into connectivity and movement patterns of the Early Iron Age. Overall, this research shows that Python-based methods provide a valuable alternative methodology to traditional GIS and a nuanced understanding of ancient human-landscape interactions.Show less
Toward the end of the Late Bronze Age, conflicts, widespread migrations and climate change culminated in the collapse of centers of political power across the Aegean and the Near East. The period...Show moreToward the end of the Late Bronze Age, conflicts, widespread migrations and climate change culminated in the collapse of centers of political power across the Aegean and the Near East. The period that followed, the Early Iron Age, was marked by a decrease in settlement size, population, and interregional contact. These large changes are associated with a change in diet, toward a subsistence strategy of diversification rather than intensification. During the Archaic Period, climate improved, poleis start to form and a period of regeneration begins. By the Hellenistic Period, centralized power in the form of large kingdoms and highly populated urban centers exist, and long distance contact with Egypt and the Near East reaches an unprecedented scale. The question arises therefore if these large societal changes once again are mirrored by a change in diet within Greece. In order to investigate this, stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis is done on human skeletal remains from the Early Iron Age sites of Halos in Thessaly, and Makrigialos in Greek Macedonia. From those same locations, skeletal material dating to the Hellenistic Period in the case of Halos and the Classical Period in the case of Makrigialos is also investigated. Using stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis, assessment and comparison of diet within and between the sites is done. Diet reconstruction based on skeletal isotopic data suggests that diet did indeed change from the Early Iron Age into later periods. All examined groups were agropastoral, with a diet based on C3 plant consumption and terrestrial animal products. At Halos, millet was consumed during the Early Iron Age, but not in the Hellenistic Period. As the climate became wetter, millet was no longer a necessary food source. Instead, there is evidence of marine food intake and increased consumption of processed secondary animal products, and possibly greater consumption of luxury goods. This could indicate import of food, as this would alleviate stress related to food production and allow for effort to go toward a more varied diet with luxury additions. At Makrigialos, millet remained a substantial dietary component from the Early Iron Age into the Classical Period, but animal protein intake increased.Show less
This Graduation Project revolves around the real caste study and co-creation project Berk&Hout which is situated on the boundary of the municipalities Tilburg and Udenhout (the Netherlands). An...Show moreThis Graduation Project revolves around the real caste study and co-creation project Berk&Hout which is situated on the boundary of the municipalities Tilburg and Udenhout (the Netherlands). An important element in the development of this new residential area was the excavation of a Late Bronze Age/ Early Iron Age urnfield together with settlement traces from the Bronze Age and Roman Period. The aim of this paper was to explore the possibilities of co-creation projects for archaeological research, especially for its public outreach including citizen participation. Co-creation is an upcoming concept in the field of public archaeology, a branch of archaeology that concerns itself with the interaction between the archaeological research and the public. The intention of co-creation is to create an environment in which all stakeholders of a project work together to define the goals of a project, create the plan and make joint decisions. In order for co-creation to become increasingly prevalent in the field of archaeology, the establishment of two treaties by the Council of Europe were necessary. It started with the implementation of the Malta convention (1992), which ensured conservation and protection of the archaeological heritage and with that the role of the archaeologists in society and within (development) projects. At the same time, with the Malta convention the importance of the accessibility of heritage and the role of public awareness was considered. In the Faro convention (2005) the focus on participation in cultural heritage was developed even further. The framework aided the shift in focus from how Europe’s heritage should be protected to why heritage should be accorded value. Its intention was to change the role of the public in assigning value to heritage and emphasizes that heritage should not just be defined by the heritage professionals: the democratization of heritage. It was an important step in order to facilitate co-creation projects because of a shift in the agency, the valorisation and inclusiveness of cultural heritage. The Faro convention also mentions the potential of heritage as resource for sustainable development and ability to enhance the quality of life through placemaking and creation of communities. Five case studies from Netherlands and its neighbouring countries demonstrated the potential that archaeology has in co-creation projects when designing with archaeology is used. Based on the master plan of Berk&Hout, the scientific results of the archaeological research and the stakeholder analysis, it was decided to physically implement the archaeological heritage in the landscape of Berk&Hout through designing with archaeology. Three designs were suggested that were themed around several steps from the ladder of citizen participation; information, concertation and co-creation. This research by design made apparent the possibilities and challenges that designing with archaeology offers for the field of archaeology and heritage within co-creation projects. It is a permanent and sustainable way to physically represent the heritage of a place. With active involvement of the stakeholders it can lead to community building and enhance the quality of life for an area. Co-creation and ‘designing with archaeology’ can transform the space of the development project Berk&Hout into a place again: from cremation to co-creation.Show less
Research on urn cremations from the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (c. 1350-500 BC) found in Northwestern continental Europe has been scarce over the last decades. Especially in terms of what...Show moreResearch on urn cremations from the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (c. 1350-500 BC) found in Northwestern continental Europe has been scarce over the last decades. Especially in terms of what urn cremations contain, and if these contents are positioned in a certain way. This has resulted in the notion that Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age burials are simple graves, with simple funerary practices. However, this research reveals a variety of choices was made throughout the funerary process, which makes these funerary practices increasingly more complex than assumed. To study these past funerary practices, this research examined the choices made in terms of what Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age urn cremations contain, and the position of these contents. This was achieved through a literature study of sites in the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Germany, and by conducting a case study on a Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age urn cremation from Venlo-Zaarderheiken (Limburg, the Netherlands). The latter allowed the examination of the contents and their position inside this urn cremation in detail. As a result, a variety of choices and actions concerning the contents and their position inside these urn cremations became visible through this dataset. This indicated funerary practices were more elaborate than thought; cremated human remains were carefully collected from the pyre remains, after which they were occasionally positioned inside the urn. Pyre remains were generally not added, in contrast to grave goods which often accompanied the dead on the pyre during cremation as well. Before the final deposition, the cremated human remains were covered with ceramics or stone slabs to prevent contamination with soil or to protect them from (accidental) digging activities. Thus, this research yielded a lot of new information on Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age funerary practices in Northwestern continental Europe, which proves these practices were more elaborate than initially thought.Show less
In this thesis the added value of using μ-CT scans in the study of archaeological textiles is studied. To study the potential of this technique, two samples of the textiles from the sites of Oss...Show moreIn this thesis the added value of using μ-CT scans in the study of archaeological textiles is studied. To study the potential of this technique, two samples of the textiles from the sites of Oss-Vorstengraf and Uden-Slabroekse Heide were analysed. These Early Iron Age sites are among the few prehistoric sites that have brought forth preserved archaeological textiles. The sites were chosen because of their precise dating and their thoroughly documented context information. The textiles fragments of both sites have been mineralised through their contact with metal objects and thus have been mineralised. For this research the two samples were scanned with μ-CT at a synchrotron facility. The μ-CT data was used to create 3D representations of the scanned textiles. The potential of μ-CT in the study of archaeological textiles was assessed by comparing the 3D representations of the textiles, with the results of the analysis with SEM, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and the results of the technical analysis of the same samples. With the 3D representations of the textiles, it is possible to thoroughly study the structure of a textiles from all possible angles and it provides the ability to create cross-sections of the textile. To assess the preservation of the textile and the determine the source of the fibres, SEM is the most optimal technique to be used, since it provides the required view of the surface of the individual fibres, which is lost with the 3D representations. Still, when using μ-CT to study archaeological textiles, the costs and efforts to create the 3D representations should be taken into account. In the future, the combination of μ-CT and SEM might prove to be a valuable combination to study archaeological textiles.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
open access
In the light of the current interests in hybridity in archaeology this thesis tries to find a transparent way to detect hybridity in grey-ware of Early Iron Age Iberia. This pottery type is...Show moreIn the light of the current interests in hybridity in archaeology this thesis tries to find a transparent way to detect hybridity in grey-ware of Early Iron Age Iberia. This pottery type is presumed to be a hybrid ware that has evolved from the influences of local preference for ceramics made with techniques introduced by the Phoenician ‘colonizers’. A case study investigates this issue in the grey-ware assemblage from the site of Cerro Manzanillo in the province of Badajoz, Extremadura. Clearly the analysis of this assemblage poses theoretical as well as practical problems. The obscurities around the parameters to classify grey-ware in the past together with a general lack of understanding about the boundaries and meaning of the stylistic evolution of material culture lead to the conclusion that hybridity is not a good concept to describe this type of material culture. Rather, hybridity can be used to describe the processes behind stylistic change although this is only a valuable classification when this term is defined more accurately.Show less
