In royal (self-)representation, one recurring symbol is that of the phoenix. Symbolizing eternal life and hermaphroditism, the phoenix is connected to the theories of the body politic and the body...Show moreIn royal (self-)representation, one recurring symbol is that of the phoenix. Symbolizing eternal life and hermaphroditism, the phoenix is connected to the theories of the body politic and the body theatrical. The phoenix was used as a symbol by both male monarchs, such as James VI & I (1566-1625), Louis XIII (1601-1643), and Louis XIV (1638-1715), and female monarchs such as Elizabeth I (1533-1603) and Christina of Sweden (1626-1689). Elizabeth I’s use of the phoenix symbol is generally understood to refer to perpetual renewal and eternity,1 whereas Christina of Sweden’s use of the phoenix symbol is interpreted as a reference to hermaphroditism and the dual-gendered body politic. Scholarship on the French kings connects the phoenix symbolism to contemporary (political) anxieties over monarchial succession. To date, no systematic study has been made of the phoenix symbol as an expression of monarchial succession anxiety in early modern English society. This is curious, since the English monarchy has seen quite a number of problematic successions since the death of Henry VIII in 1547 and throughout the seventeenth century. The last decades of the reign of Elizabeth I, who died childless in 1603, is known to have caused succession anxiety. Therefore, this thesis aims to fill this gap in scholarship by performing a quantitative as well as a qualitative analysis of the occurrence of phoenix symbolism in early modern English literature and art, with an emphasis on the symbol’s use as an expression of succession anxiety. For the study of the occurrence of the phoenix symbol in early modern English literature, the Early English Books Online (EEBO) database has been used. A search on EEBO for the keyword ‘phoenix’ yielded 5810 hits in 2768 records/documents. The search results were manually sorted, excluding documents referring to the Elizabethan frigat ‘Phoenix’ and the Phoenix Theatre in Drury Lane, London. Ultimately, 2474 documents containing phoenix symbolism were identified (listed in Appendix A), of which 270 documents directly refer to either a monarch or to royal succession (listed in Appendix B). These results have been visualized in the graphs depicted throughout this thesis in order to clarify my arguments. For the qualitative analysis the most interesting and noteworthy EEBO search results have been selected for analysis. The quantitative and qualitative analyses presented in this thesis reveal that the phoenix symbol can be considered an expression of anxieties over succession. The phoenix symbol is not only used as a universal symbol of the monarchy, but also often served to specifically invoke the memory of the persona ficta and the (posthumously mythologised) reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Instead of being a general symbol of royalty, the phoenix symbol in early modern English society was often used to signify Queen Elizabeth I or her reign, which was hailed as the Golden Age as part of the rhetoric of nostalgia as well as her posthumous memorial cult. This strong connection to Elizabeth I caused the use of the phoenix symbol to soar in the first half of the seventeenth century. Ironically, this strong connection is also the main reason for the symbol’s downfall at the end of the century. Moreover, the Scientific Revolution and the demythologisation of the monarchy caused royal symbolism in general to lose its significance and its meaning by the start of the eighteenth century. The rise and fall of the phoenix symbol, spanning from the mid-sixteenth until the early eighteenth century, mirrors these socio-political developments.Show less
This thesis traces the development and the adaption of the originally Catholic concept of Holy War to the post-Reformation era, and a new faith, Protestantism. For this reason one part of the main...Show moreThis thesis traces the development and the adaption of the originally Catholic concept of Holy War to the post-Reformation era, and a new faith, Protestantism. For this reason one part of the main research-question of this thesis was how the concept of Holy War emerged in the anti-Spanish polemics, and the other part deals with its socio-political functions within the English society. The conclusion of the author is that the purpose of Holy War rhetoric in the anti-Spanish polemics was a way to sacralize political rule in England and to strengthen the English national identity. To maintain Protestantism, Catholicism needed to be fought. By strengthening the national Protestant identity and sacralizing the political rule, Holy War had become a productive cultural concept that continued to be present in the English society of the late sixteenth century.Show less
In 1585, the hostilities in the Anglo-Spanish rivalry came to an all-time high. Researches have presented a divided narrative about the conflict. A trade embargo on all English vessels and the...Show moreIn 1585, the hostilities in the Anglo-Spanish rivalry came to an all-time high. Researches have presented a divided narrative about the conflict. A trade embargo on all English vessels and the constant assaults of Sir Francis Drake were two potential reasons for the Anglo-Spanish War. Which one of them is the point of no return is, however, not known. Since the crucial moment is not established, the question of the point of no return has been left unanswered. Historians have debated with little success as the answers to the question have not been very definite. The absence of explicit evidence and specific research to the period didn’t encourage a better historiographic debate, thus leaving the question of the point of no return unanswered. This study examines the same question that past historians have failed to answer: the point of no return in the Anglo-Spanish relations. Furthermore, the analysis reveals valuable information about unnoticed parts in missives, a distinctive event and the perspective of Elizabeth I and Philip II on the conflict.Show less
Combining Stephen Greenblatt's concept of Renaissance self-fashioning and Kevin Sharpe's analysis of the performative authority of the Tudor monarchs, this thesis examines the way in which the...Show moreCombining Stephen Greenblatt's concept of Renaissance self-fashioning and Kevin Sharpe's analysis of the performative authority of the Tudor monarchs, this thesis examines the way in which the political self-fashioning of Queen Elizabeth I specifically is figured within both parts of Christopher Marlowe's Tamburlaine. The first three chapters outline the various ways in which Elizabeth effected this self-fashioning (through language and rhetoric; image, spectacle and symbol; and the instrumentilisation of concepts of religion and empire) and detail how these methods are used by Tamburlaine within the play to create his own authority. The fourth chapter then turns to the question of whether this necessarily makes Tamburlaine a subversive play, ultimately concluding that, although the mimicry of the monarch is surely deliberate, the answer lies in the reaction of the audience to the text.Show less