The thesis seeks to provide an explanation regarding the decision of the European Union to impose economic sanctions against the Russian Federation, after the latter’s involvement in Ukraine with...Show moreThe thesis seeks to provide an explanation regarding the decision of the European Union to impose economic sanctions against the Russian Federation, after the latter’s involvement in Ukraine with the annexation of Crimea, by using a constructivist approach. The argument of this thesis for the constructivist interpretation of EU sanctions against Russia lies on the notions of EU Identity and EU Shared Values. The analysis of the purpose of the sanctions, their relation with the international legal order and the decision making process leading to their adoption, results in an interpretation that can be satisfactory under the constructivist approach. This approach is useful in order to explain EU’s imposition of economic sanctions against the Russian Federation as part of its broader foreign policy. Furthermore, by employing the method of Congruence Analysis the thesis draws inferences between normative predictions deriving from the given theory and empirical observations. Moreover, the argument of this thesis concludes that the special character of the EU, the notions of its Identity and Shared Values affected its collective decision to impose economic sanctions. Ultimately, the thesis renders the European Union to fit the constructivist assertions regarding the functions of the international system.Show less
This thesis assesses whether the EU is as a market power shaping third countries' legislation and policies as asserted by "Market Power Europe", a theoretical framework, which has been...Show moreThis thesis assesses whether the EU is as a market power shaping third countries' legislation and policies as asserted by "Market Power Europe", a theoretical framework, which has been insufficiently explored in the literature so far. More concretely it is scrutinised if electricity market liberalisation and emissions trading acquis has been externalised to Switzerland and Ukraine. First, it is shown that there is market power potential in the field of energy, as the European regulatory order was increasingly strengthened since the mid-1990s and gave birth to two significant markets for electricity and carbon emissions trade. Second, it is demonstrated that even though acquis externalization occurred to a certain extent in both cases, four intervening variables filtered the EU's market power. Indeed, market interconnectedness, political culture, the nature of the political system and the level of institutionalization of the EU's relations with a third country need to be taken into account when assessing the EU's market power in a given third country. These findings are not only theoretically relevant, they also suggest that the EU should concentrate on the development of its Single Market and regulatory order as well as on solid institutional framework conditions to cement its power towards third countries and enlarge its global influence.Show less
This paper engages in the debate on the banning of the burkini in coastal resorts in France in 2016. It uses this case study to assess whether there has been a change in attitudes towards Muslim...Show moreThis paper engages in the debate on the banning of the burkini in coastal resorts in France in 2016. It uses this case study to assess whether there has been a change in attitudes towards Muslim women in the country. The findings suggest that whilst perceptions remain similar there is now more open opposition towards women wearing Islamic veils. The history of France’s relationship with Islam, especially in regards to women, is used to put into perspective the 2016 bans. The differences between these prohibitions in comparison to previous laws regarding Islamic veils in France, but also the underlying similarities are analysed. Furthermore, the case study of France will be expanded EU-wide and will deliberate on the future of such restrictions to female Muslim dress.Show less
The main aim of this thesis is to explore the implications of democracy promotion on ensuring free and fair elections in hybrid regimes. Despite the recent wave of democratization, some countries...Show moreThe main aim of this thesis is to explore the implications of democracy promotion on ensuring free and fair elections in hybrid regimes. Despite the recent wave of democratization, some countries have plunged back into authoritarianism. These regimes combine both democratic and authoritarian principles. Resultantly, they are referred to as hybrid regimes. The most common democratic feature that these hybrid regimes adapt are multiparty elections. However, elections in hybrid regimes are characterized by rigging of elections and serious human rights violations. Consequently, the international community has renewed its democracy promotion efforts. Similarly, the European Union (EU) has strengthened its democracy promotion in hybrid regimes with a focus on elections. This thesis seeks to answer the research question: What are the implications of the European Union’s democracy promotion on elections in Zimbabwe and Cambodia? The research question shall be answered through a comparative case study on the implications of the EU's democracy promotion on elections held in Zimbabwe and Cambodia from 2000 to 2013. Both case studies shall examine how internal factors (local factors within the countries) and external factors (weaknesses inherent in the EU's democracy promotion) influence the EU's efforts to ensure free and fair elections in hybrid regimes.Show less
While Europe is facing a refugee crisis with millions of refugees and migrants crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the industry behind the migrant smuggling has become an extremely lucrative business....Show moreWhile Europe is facing a refugee crisis with millions of refugees and migrants crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the industry behind the migrant smuggling has become an extremely lucrative business. Clearly, steps have to be taken to bring this industry to a halt. But although the EU stepped up its efforts to respond to the migration crisis, when it comes to the criminal investigations and the effective prosecution of migrant smugglers, the EU lags behind one EU member state in particular: Italy. Over the last years, Italian prosecution offices have launched impressive large scale investigations and brought to trial hundreds of suspects. It is also the only EU member state that prosecutes migrant smugglers active along the migration routes from North-Africa towards Italy. In order for the EU to better combat migrant smugglers in the future, it would be useful to look closer at the Italian judicial investigations. Therefore, in this thesis the Italian investigations on migrant smuggling are looked upon as a case study to find out (1) how the EU can improve the investigations on migrant smuggling of other EU member states, based on Italy’s good practises, and (2) how the EU can further support the Italian investigations on migrant smuggling. Particular attention is dedicated to the cooperation between the Italian prosecution offices and the two EU naval missions that are active in the Mediterranean Sea, Frontex-led Operation Triton and the military mission EUNAVFOR Med. One possibility is further explored that can improve this cooperation: the application of so-called shiprider agreements, agreements that were arranged in the past to better combat the smuggling of drugs and other illegal goods, but that can also be applied in the context of Operation Triton and Operation Sophia.Show less
This thesis looks at what the regional institutions of the European Union and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations have done to promote regional identities and whether or not these strategies...Show moreThis thesis looks at what the regional institutions of the European Union and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations have done to promote regional identities and whether or not these strategies have been successful.Show less
The EU has not succeeded in developing a uniform approach in response to the exceptionally high number of asylum seekers entering Europe. Instead, the EU’s recent handling of irregular migration...Show moreThe EU has not succeeded in developing a uniform approach in response to the exceptionally high number of asylum seekers entering Europe. Instead, the EU’s recent handling of irregular migration has been marked by unilateral action, mutual accusations and political deadlock. Moreover, the European migration crisis of 2015 has demonstrated that the Common European Asylum System (CEAS) is unable to handle migratory pressure and actually stimulates secondary movements. However, the current East-West divide prevents the emergence of any meaningful compromise that would allow the CEAS to be successfully reformed. For this reason, the question examined by this thesis is whether the CEAS can be reformed through using differentiation and if so, how and to what extent this would be possible. In order to answer this question, three topics surrounding EU asylum and migration policy are discussed, i.e. Schengen, external border management and the relocation program. The analysis of this thesis concludes that differentiation cannot be applied to Schengen and is not required to enhance external border management because of an emerging consensus. Still, differentiation does have the potential to improve the functioning of the relocation program but this would require member states to centralize their asylum policies, something that is unlikely to happen in the near future. Even so, a coalition of the willing should aim to reform the CEAS into a centralized EU asylum system because only then will the EU be able to effectively control high levels of irregular migration into Europe.Show less
This thesis looks if Britain's decision to leave the EU will lead to more European defence and military cooperation between the remaining EU member states.
Foreign aid, inherently political in its nature and deeply embedded into the states’/organizations’ external relations, has been a subject of intensive analysis. The academic literature concerning...Show moreForeign aid, inherently political in its nature and deeply embedded into the states’/organizations’ external relations, has been a subject of intensive analysis. The academic literature concerning foreign aid reveals that the topic of international assistance is a complex heterogeneous subject, since a number of factors directly or implicitly shape aid, these being institutional characteristics, domestic and international politics, as well as the role of public opinion. Moreover, International Relations scholars argue that aid policies differ tremendously depending on the channel through which the international assistance is disbursed. As a result, aid has been classified into bilateral, multilateral and multi-bi, where each of these channels has been associated with specific characteristics. In fact, on the basis of the donor’s trends in the employment of these channels, implications could be drawn about the overall foreign aid policies of traditional state donor. Yet, it is controversial whether the same approach could be used when considering other fund providers, such as international organizations, which feature peculiar arrangements. Especially intriguing is the case of the European Union, due to it being reputed as highly humanitarian international organization, which also contributes large volumes of aid. This research aims by expounding the trends in the Union’s employment of aid channels to explore the extent to which these are correlated to and indicative of its overall foreign aid approach.Show less
The EU-Moroccan Mobility Partnership has been understood as EU’s migration policy to keep off unwanted migrants from reaching the Schengen area. EU is noted to have induced its southern neighbors’...Show moreThe EU-Moroccan Mobility Partnership has been understood as EU’s migration policy to keep off unwanted migrants from reaching the Schengen area. EU is noted to have induced its southern neighbors’ cooperation by offering positive (or negative) conditionality. However, this paper claims that such an understanding remains Eurocentric and limited. The chronological development of the partnership demonstrates that Morocco complied with EU’s demands when deemed politically pragmatic, rather than based on the conditionality EU presented. Morocco implemented the partnership on border control to its advantage, politicizing the issue in accordance with the country’s geopolitical interests. On the other hand, Morocco was hesitant to institutionalize protection of migrants, including asylum seekers, in spite of EU’s growing commitment to the agenda. This paper claims that the emerging protection gap represents Morocco’s attempts to prevent EU from shifting an undue burden. By showing that Morocco acted with an autonomous agency, this paper shifts the scholarly attention from the North to the South and from positivist to constructivist understandings in accounting for international cooperation on migration challenges.Show less
Vulnerabilities in information systems have always been the Achilles heel of digital security. Ransomware-campaigns such as WannaCry and (Not)Petya highlighted the global and multidimensional...Show moreVulnerabilities in information systems have always been the Achilles heel of digital security. Ransomware-campaigns such as WannaCry and (Not)Petya highlighted the global and multidimensional nature of vulnerabilities and showed how substantial the impact of these could be for many aspects of the daily life. Vulnerability disclosure is a valuable instrument to report and solve these vulnerabilities to increase the security of information systems and prevent such events from happening. However, EU’s legal landscape for vulnerability disclosure is fragmented, and vulnerability researchers have to deal with legal uncertainty. Therefore, this thesis focuses on how the EU can increase the resilience of its cyber ecosystem through stimulating vulnerability disclosure. The purpose of this study will be to describe the different policy instruments the EU may use to stimulate coordinated vulnerability disclosure and prescribe which ones would be most valuable for increasing the EU’s cyber resilience. Coordinated vulnerability disclosure refers to the approach of disclosing vulnerabilities in the security of information systems in a controlled and responsible manner. This thesis will combine an analysis of primary and secondary sources – using technical and non-technical perspectives to bring these two worlds closer together to develop effective cybersecurity policies. To provide a deeper understanding of how the EU could construct a resilient cyber ecosystem: insight on cybersecurity, the resilience of ecosystems and security governance will be combined. Concluding, it is recommended that the EU uses a mix of regulatory instruments making optimal use of the expertise of the private sector to stimulate coordinated vulnerability disclosure. The outcomes are timely because in September 2017 a new EU Cyberstrategy will be presented.Show less
This thesis compares the Italian reception of boat migrants from Albania in the 1900’s and Libya in the 2000’s. The first aim of the thesis is to examine the migration streams from Albania to Italy...Show moreThis thesis compares the Italian reception of boat migrants from Albania in the 1900’s and Libya in the 2000’s. The first aim of the thesis is to examine the migration streams from Albania to Italy, focusing on the years 1991 and 1997, and from Libya to Italy in 2005/6 and 2008/10. The purpose is to understand how Italy reacted to the various cases and why the strategies implemented by the various governments at diverse moments of history were so different. The second, but definitely no less important objective of this thesis, is to test whether or not the gap hypothesis could be applied to Italy’s policies towards boat migrants. By doing so, this thesis could shed new light on whether there was a possible gap in the outcome of the policies implemented during the various years by Italy due to European influence. The hypothesis is that there could be a gap caused by the increasingly more powerful EU and European Court of Human Rights of Strasbourg in the field of migration policy implementation, a policy field historically strongly bonded with state sovereignty.Show less
Migration in the Central Mediterranean is not a new development, but in the period between 2011 and 2016, the number of migrant arrivals in Italy has significantly increased. The central question...Show moreMigration in the Central Mediterranean is not a new development, but in the period between 2011 and 2016, the number of migrant arrivals in Italy has significantly increased. The central question in this thesis is: What are the pull factors of migration? Why do migrants increasingly choose to migrate towards the EU? The basis is the theory of Ravenstein of push and pull factors to explain migration. In this thesis, I identified several developments in the Central Mediterranean during this period and analysed the different variables. These variables are: governmental missions in the Mediterranean, the movement of NGOs involved in search and rescue operations and the EU-Turkey agreement. After a method of process tracing and interviews, the conclusion was that pull factors are less important in the process of decision-making of migrants than is mostly considered. Most migrants are more influenced by push factors.The invasion towards the European Union is a myth and their rescue missions in the Mediterranean do not influence migrants or attract huge numbers of them.Show less
This thesis seeks to interrogate the response of the European Union to the events known as the Arab uprisings, with a particular focus on the political transitions experienced by Egypt and Tunisia...Show moreThis thesis seeks to interrogate the response of the European Union to the events known as the Arab uprisings, with a particular focus on the political transitions experienced by Egypt and Tunisia since early 2011. It conducts a thorough textual analysis of major European Neighbourhood Policy documents and ‘speech acts’ related to Egypt and Tunisia, using Norman Fairclough’s three- dimensional Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). In each instance of ENP discourse, this study sees a text, a discursive practice and a social practice. It identifies the particular discursive configurations of democracy promotion in these text samples, noting a significant change in tone since the launch of the ENP in 2003. More specifically, it points to the new neighbourhood agenda developed by the EU since the wave of protests in the Middle-East and North Africa, characterised by greater ownership of ENP policies by EU partners, considerable differentiation in their objectives and a heightened concern for the stabilisation of the region. Rooted in a critical, constructivist approach to discourse analysis, it eventually contends that the seemingly less voluntarist narrative developed in South Neighbourhood policy documents is the result of higher threat perception in the Union. A threat narrative is indeed highlighted, as a particular instance of a crisis rhetoric, resulting in a notable downscaling of EU normative ambitions in the region. Investigation of the Egyptian and Tunisian cases since 2011 provides important information regarding these developments in the ENP. This thesis eventually points to civil society assistance as a narrative of inclusiveness which could prove to be a significant addition to ENP democracy promotion agenda, while recognising the limits of this endeavour.Show less
The hypothesis presented in this thesis states that the EU applied a collaborative pro-democracy strategy in Rwanda partly due to its positive levels of stability and development. Rwanda has been...Show moreThe hypothesis presented in this thesis states that the EU applied a collaborative pro-democracy strategy in Rwanda partly due to its positive levels of stability and development. Rwanda has been compared to two other African countries, Niger and Guinea, which share a similar situation but which received a confrontation strategy from the EU instead.Show less
After 2007 and the inclusion of Bulgaria in the European Union, European funding has been introduced on a national level through a variety of programmes. Partial funding coming through two regional...Show moreAfter 2007 and the inclusion of Bulgaria in the European Union, European funding has been introduced on a national level through a variety of programmes. Partial funding coming through two regional development programmes is being relocated towards conservation of archaeological heritage. So far, 72 archaeological sites have been conserved by restoration, and restoration projects are still ongoing. Nevertheless, the majority of these restorations are being deemed unfit by academics and international experts. Some of them were termed “hypothetical reconstructions” and have attracted extensive media and academic attention over the years. Many have expressed the opinion that the completion of restoration projects executed under the regional development programmes leads to a destruction of heritage. The aim of the current thesis is, therefore, to explore the phenomenon of hypothetical reconstructions by looking for particular reasons for dissatisfaction, expressed by people involved with archaeology. A qualitative research using a case study methodology was carried out, and three participants were interviewed. The case study focuses on the “Yailata” archaeological reserve, where a fortress and a rock church were subjects of restoration activities. By discussing the differences between restoration and reconstruction, and looking at the official project reports from Yailata, a theoretical framework is created through which the qualitative data is evaluated. The produced results set a discussion platform, which considers not only the violation of international legislation, but also a by-product resulting from hypothetical archaeological heritage reconstructions. The relationship between heritage and its power to construct national identity is discussed in relation to the practice of hypothetical reconstructions in Bulgaria. Furthermore, the involvement of the European community as a stakeholder is considered. The thesis is aimed at academics, heritage practitioners, and anyone who is interested in the phenomenon of hypothetical reconstructions.Show less
Over the last years, some member states of the European Union have been the target of terrorist attacks. The attacks in France and Belgium in 2015 and 2016 show that the fight against terrorism and...Show moreOver the last years, some member states of the European Union have been the target of terrorist attacks. The attacks in France and Belgium in 2015 and 2016 show that the fight against terrorism and specifically against the Islamic State (ISIS) is far from an end. The thesis aims to discuss if the difficulties faced by Belgium to deal with the issue could influence the adoption of an effective common anti-terrorist policy by member states and if this could be done through the development of CSDP. Could terrorist attacks and the insufficient capacity of Belgium in providing adequate counter-terrorism and intelligence services be considered situations significant enough which could lead to an agreement between member states about the development of an effective Common Security and Defense Policy which would benefit the whole EU? Social constructivism is used as the theoretical basis of this analysis.Show less
In 2014, the European Union enforced sanctions against Russia in response to its actions in Ukraine. The theory on sanctions provides multiple theories on their potential effectiveness. These...Show moreIn 2014, the European Union enforced sanctions against Russia in response to its actions in Ukraine. The theory on sanctions provides multiple theories on their potential effectiveness. These theories are applied in the case of Russia to answer whether they can be successfull in achieving their goal.Show less
This thesis researches the views of Dutch politicians on the effects of the Macroeconomic Imbalances Procedure (MIP) on social economic policy in the Netherlands. This research reveals the...Show moreThis thesis researches the views of Dutch politicians on the effects of the Macroeconomic Imbalances Procedure (MIP) on social economic policy in the Netherlands. This research reveals the discrepancy between national opinions of Dutch politicians on the MIP and the outcome on the European level. Hence it illustrates the poorly organised democratic process of discussing European legislative proposals in the Dutch House of Representatives and thereby contributes to the discussion about the democratic deficit in the EU.Show less
