Disruptions to the routine operations of ICTs in conflict situations have made cybersecurity come to ascend a prominent position in the legal and political decision-makeing of the EU....Show moreDisruptions to the routine operations of ICTs in conflict situations have made cybersecurity come to ascend a prominent position in the legal and political decision-makeing of the EU. Europeanization has been used to describe the processes by which EU decision-makeing manifests itself in the logic of, for example, national policy outcomes of those processes (see Radaelli, 2012, p. 1 as cited by Fererro & Ackrill, 2016, p.880). The literature has pointed to the significant amount of soft law which the EU has issued to regulate cybersecurity. However, per definition EU member states are not legally obliged to implement soft law. Accordingly, by utilizing Europeanization as a conceptual frame, this thesis has sought to answer the question: To what extent has non-legally binding EU soft law on cybersecurity influenced the making of the national cybersecurity policies of its MS over time? To address the research, question the thesis has taken a small-scale empirical mixed-method approach by analyzing the extent to which specifically, Germany's and Slovakia's national cybersecurity strategies have harmonized over time toward the 2020 EU cybersecurity strategy (EUCSS) as a consequence of using the soft law document in their stagey-making. The analysis suggest that the EU cybersecurity strategy did influence the national strategy-making, but that the degree of harmonization depended on the extent to which the EUCSS aligned with national ambitions and priorities. To this end, the member states actively strived to 'Europeanize' their national cybersecurity strategies.Show less
The influence of the EU or ‘top-down Europeanization’ on the convergence of Member States has been a popular area of research. This study will take it a step further and address the following...Show moreThe influence of the EU or ‘top-down Europeanization’ on the convergence of Member States has been a popular area of research. This study will take it a step further and address the following research question: ‘What effect has Europeanization posed on the shaping of the Counter-Terrorism strategy of France and the Netherlands?’. This specific research will take a look at which terrorism related events happened in both countries before 9/11, how the process of counter-terrorism strategies developed after 9/11, and how (top-down) Europeanization had influenced the shaping of these counter-terrorism strategies.Show less
As part of China’s quest of regaining its superpower status in world politics, the country has launched a comprehensive transportation system called the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). This BRI is...Show moreAs part of China’s quest of regaining its superpower status in world politics, the country has launched a comprehensive transportation system called the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). This BRI is accompanied with large-scale investment programmes in primarily the infrastructural and energy sector. One of the destinations of these investments, called FDI, is the Western Balkan region. This region consists of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia. These countries are at different stages of their accession process to the European Union (EU). Unclarity exists amongst scholars whether the Chinese FDI that these countries receive obstruct their accession process towards the EU, i.e. their Europeanization process. By means of a longitudinal small-N MSSD-I research, it is investigated whether Chinese FDI negatively affects the Europeanization in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia and Serbia. This research concludes that the Europeanization in the Western Balkans is indeed negatively affected by Chinese FDI, although this effect is of a less than proportional nature. This research also indicates which specific chapters of the acquis communautaire and which Copenhagen criteria of the Europeanization are negatively impacted, and whether this effect is limited or strong. Furthermore, it inquires how the Europeanization in the Western Balkans can be explained: is the logic of appropriateness or the logic of consequentiality better suited for clarifying this process? In other words, do the Western Balkan states feel an intrinsic connection to the European identity, or do they want to become EU member states because of the material benefits accompanied with accession? This research finds that the logic of consequentiality prevails over the logic of appropriateness in explaining the Europeanization in the Western Balkans. Nevertheless, both logics of action are still relevant for acquiring a full understanding of the acquis adoption in candidate member states.Show less
This research aims to contribute to the debates on the democratic deficit of the European Union by researching the added value of EU membership in the field of cybersecurity. One of the main...Show moreThis research aims to contribute to the debates on the democratic deficit of the European Union by researching the added value of EU membership in the field of cybersecurity. One of the main arguments when discussing the democratic deficit of the EU, argues that the EU fulfils its democratic purposes, if it works ‘for’ the people. By providing effective governance and polity, the EU membership makes cyberspace safer and more secure for its member states, which is beneficial for all EU citizens. The EU and its agencies facilitate effective and operative cooperation that works ‘for’ the people. This research focused on two member states as case studies, The Netherlands and Hungary and found evidence that the EU provides a trusted and operative environment which contributes to cybersecurity in unique ways like no other international cooperation. This research looks for evidence that Europeanization, securitization, and interdependence drive the integration in cybersecurity at the European level.Show less
During the European debt crisis it became clear that the European fiscal framework needed to be reformed. Part of this reform process was the Fiscal Compact, which required the signatory states to...Show moreDuring the European debt crisis it became clear that the European fiscal framework needed to be reformed. Part of this reform process was the Fiscal Compact, which required the signatory states to adopt a balanced budget rule in their domestic legislation ‘preferably’ on constitutional level. The Fiscal Compact thus required change and reform of the domestic fiscal frameworks. However, the degree of change of the domestic fiscal frameworks in the various Member States is very different. This thesis tried to explain why this is the case. Firstly, this thesis determined the degree of change in Germany, Spain and the Netherlands by comparing the domestic fiscal frameworks of these countries before the crisis to the domestic fiscal frameworks after the introduction of the Fiscal Compact. Secondly, this thesis tried to explain the variety in the degree of change in Germany, Spain and the Netherlands, by using concepts from Europeanization theory and Historical Institutionalism, such as the ‘degree of misfit’, veto-players and other mediating factors.Show less
This thesis aims at understanding how domestic laws concerning immigration detention in EU Member States have been modified following the entering into force of EU standards and legislation. This...Show moreThis thesis aims at understanding how domestic laws concerning immigration detention in EU Member States have been modified following the entering into force of EU standards and legislation. This Europeanization process has been analysed in three case studies, namely Italy, France and Sweden. In this thesis, it will be demonstrated that Member Stated modified their laws to different extents, with a mixture of substantial, moderate and no modification depending on the specific legislative provision at stake. Also, some measures became more restrictive for third country nationals, whereas others were softened.Show less
This thesis examines how British prime ministers have de-Europeanized the national identity through their discourse before and after the Brexit referendum – or in other words – how they turned away...Show moreThis thesis examines how British prime ministers have de-Europeanized the national identity through their discourse before and after the Brexit referendum – or in other words – how they turned away from the EU by using language. The research is conducted through a critical discourse analysis (CDA) of 25 speeches and statements by David Cameron and Theresa May. The timeframe begins when Cameron promised a referendum on EU membership in January 2013, and ends in October 2017, more than a year after the yes-vote. The analysis reveals that British discourse on common security threats was not gradually de-Europeanized, but internationalised by May by constructing the UK as ‘Global Britain’. Language on migrants from the EU to the UK was already de-Europeanized before the Brexit referendum, and did not change significantly after the referendum. In fact, it gradually normalised after Cameron’s General Election victory in 2015. This study also reveals that both prime ministers could ‘cherry pick’ identities, meaning that they could choose between constructing a national, European, or even global identity to their liking per policy area.Show less
This thesis is aimed at linking the regulatory discussion about cryptocurrencies with the larger theoretical debate on whether small Member States are able to influence the direction of European...Show moreThis thesis is aimed at linking the regulatory discussion about cryptocurrencies with the larger theoretical debate on whether small Member States are able to influence the direction of European Union [EU] policy making. Research was done in the form of a casestudy on Estonia. The following research question was set: To what extent can Estonia upload domestic policy regarding cryptocurrencies to the EU level? It was found that Estonia’s ability to upload its domestic policy regarding cryptocurrencies to the EU level is now restricted, not because of a lack of capabilities to use available strategies, but mainly because of the lack of clear domestic policy, which at the same time also should not conflict with existing EU regulation. Still, Estonia could be perceived as a leader in the regulatory competition as it is already concerned with reinvention of the innovation of cryptocurrencies: estcoin. Estonia could improve its chances by specifying its plans for reinvention, by focusing on what the common interests would be and by implementing them at the national level first. Another improvement would be to look for regional coordination or strategic partnerships, which would become easier when the plans for estcoin are more defined.Show less
When analyzing anti-trafficking, one has to consider the latency of the crime and the effect of it on a given system. Often, the numbers that are collected can never be representable of the whole...Show moreWhen analyzing anti-trafficking, one has to consider the latency of the crime and the effect of it on a given system. Often, the numbers that are collected can never be representable of the whole situation of trafficking in the EU and elsewhere. Human trafficking is a crime that is very difficult to see and police due to the nature of the lack of information associated with it. Prevention of THB is of key importance due to the fact that mostly, all different key actors in anti-trafficking policy deal with the repercussions of the crime. Similarly, further difficulty arises from the fact that human trafficking cases often involve different countries, jurisdictions and definitions of the crime.Show less
Recently, the positions of France, Great Britain and Germany towards the Middle East Peace Process have started to show convergence. However, it is unclear what has caused this. This multiple...Show moreRecently, the positions of France, Great Britain and Germany towards the Middle East Peace Process have started to show convergence. However, it is unclear what has caused this. This multiple qualitative case study assesses whether this convergence is the result of the gradual adoption of common European positions and ideas, also known as Europeanization, or that it has been caused by domestic and geopolitical factors. The findings of this study suggest that limited Europeanization has occurred but that the level and kind of Europeanization differs among the three states. Whereas Great Britain and Germany have been influenced by Europeanization, France has successfully managed to influence Europe’s position towards the Middle East Peace Process. This study concludes that the difference in Europeanization has predominantly been caused by each of the states’ unique strategic and historic backgrounds.Show less
This dissertation examines the Europeanization processes of Kosovo and the European Union in the context of Kosovo’s potential candidacy. Although Europeanization approaches are now being applied...Show moreThis dissertation examines the Europeanization processes of Kosovo and the European Union in the context of Kosovo’s potential candidacy. Although Europeanization approaches are now being applied to countries that are not EU Member States, they still assess the domestic transformation of countries in specific policy areas. For this purpose, the objective of this study was to integrate the top-down, bottom-up and horizontal approaches to examine how processes of Europeanization occur as a result of a social interaction between Kosovo, the EU and EU Member States.Show less
The launch of the EU Copenhagen Criteria in 1993, at the time, could not have been anticipated as a challenge that certain countries would find unsurmountable. Superficially read, they included...Show moreThe launch of the EU Copenhagen Criteria in 1993, at the time, could not have been anticipated as a challenge that certain countries would find unsurmountable. Superficially read, they included every principle that a democratic country should strive for: stability and democracy, institutions competent and able to support and withhold that process, rule of law, respect for human and minority rights, economic prosperity and administration and institutions ready and capable of harmonizing with the European acqui communitaire.This thesis reflects upon the financial help that the EU is providing to the candidate and potential candidate states through its IPA funds.The specific case for this paper is Macedonia.Show less
Portugal was the least developed country to join the European Communities before the Eastern enlargement. Its economy was characterized by weak commercial ties to Europe, a large agricultural...Show morePortugal was the least developed country to join the European Communities before the Eastern enlargement. Its economy was characterized by weak commercial ties to Europe, a large agricultural sector employing more than one fourth of the labor force, lacking infrastructure and capital-intensive industries, and having a high illiteracy rate. Integration into the Communities influenced the transformation of Portugal into a modern market economy through three different channels. Firstly, the liberalization brought about by the common market attracted important foreign investments, induced domestic investment activity, promoted the competitiveness of light industries, and consolidated trade relations with Spain. Secondly, the modernization of sectors governed by the specific national or European policies (agriculture, fisheries, banking), was largely affected by the capabilities of the Portuguese administration. Thirdly, the EC Cohesion Policy contributed largely to the convergence with other Member States, but did not eliminate the regional disparities inside of Portugal. Most of the findings regarding the effects of the European economic integration prove to be applicable also in case of the Czech Republic and Hungary, undergoing their transformation and Europeanization two decades later.Show less
Approximately twelve years after the end of a one-year European Union (EU) arms embargo on Indonesia, the Dutch House of Representatives blocked the sale of second-hand conventional weapons to the...Show moreApproximately twelve years after the end of a one-year European Union (EU) arms embargo on Indonesia, the Dutch House of Representatives blocked the sale of second-hand conventional weapons to the former Dutch colony in 2012 . The House of Representatives cited human rights concerns as the main culprit for blocking the sale, overruling the minority government in its decision that a possible sale of arms would comply with European arms export criteria. The following year, the German federal government approved the same deal on the 8th of May, 2013. This decision appears paradoxical given the EU Common Position on Arms Exports , which attempts to harmonise the arms export policy of EU member states and requires them to deny arms export licenses to countries with poor human rights track records that may use the transferred arms in violation of international humanitarian law. The criteria of the Common Position prominently feature respect for human rights and the internationally agreed 'laws of war' and contain several mechanisms by which coherent results on behalf of arms export licensing are to be effectuated. Much as this thesis portrays a view of steady development in the area of European cooperation on arms control, it will conclude that EU member states remain sovereign in their decisions to export weapons when and to whom it suits them.Show less
The central research question presented in this thesis is: To what extent does Europeanization create barriers and/or opportunities for a transition towards competitive authoritarianism in Turkey?...Show moreThe central research question presented in this thesis is: To what extent does Europeanization create barriers and/or opportunities for a transition towards competitive authoritarianism in Turkey? In order to answer this question, this thesis employs an institution-centered theoretical framework of a qualitative case study that uses process tracing to analyze formal and informal institutional change in Turkey. Institutional change is operationalized by the conversion/layering model, which identifies how the characteristics of institutions have been transformed by the Europeanization process. This study determines that under the AKP administration, the Europeanization process has created more opportunities than barriers for Turkey to transition from democracy consolidation towards a competitive authoritarian regime.Show less
De Europese Unie (EU) kenmerkt zich de laatste decennia door aantal voortdurende problemen. De EU spoort aan op uitbreiding van het aantal lidstaten en meer besluitvorming van bovenaf. Onder de...Show moreDe Europese Unie (EU) kenmerkt zich de laatste decennia door aantal voortdurende problemen. De EU spoort aan op uitbreiding van het aantal lidstaten en meer besluitvorming van bovenaf. Onder de Europese bevolking groeit echter steeds meer onvrede over de toenemende macht van de EU. Deze problematiek laat zich omschrijven door het zogenaamde ‘democratische tekort’ binnen de EU (Cini en Pérez-Solórzano Borragán 2010: 10). Het ‘democratische tekort’ ontstaat doordat de Europese bevolking van mening is dat er (te)veel macht aan de EU wordt overgedragen. Deze Europese integratie zou ten koste gaan van de inbreng van nationale parlementen en instituten bij de totstandkoming van het uiteindelijke beleid. Tevens zou de EU te weinig verantwoording, representatie en vertegenwoordiging afleggen over dit beleid naar de Europese bevolking toe (Chryssochoou 2010: 378-379).Show less
