The Valdivia Culture, which occupied costal Ecuador between 3800 and 1450 BC, was one of the first cultures in the Americas to go through the Neolithic Revolution. One of the better known elements...Show moreThe Valdivia Culture, which occupied costal Ecuador between 3800 and 1450 BC, was one of the first cultures in the Americas to go through the Neolithic Revolution. One of the better known elements of this culture is their ceramic human figurines, which are commonly referred to as “Venus” Figurines because most of them are female representations. Academic studies about them have mainly focused on trying to explain the faction that they played in the Valdivian society. The idea that the figurines were intentionally broken as part of rituals and ceremonies has been very influential for these studies. However, the evidences presented so far to support this idea are rather weak. This thesis is an attempt to find further evidence through the use of experimental replication and experimental breakage of figurines. 65 different tests were made, each of which was an attempt to break a figurine with one of nine selected methods, two of which reflect accidental breakage while the rest reflect intentional breakage. The broken figurine replicas were then compared with archaeological figurines from the collections of Alexander Hirtz and the museum Casa del Alabado to establish how they were broken. It was not possible to determine which specific method was used to break each archaeological figurine because the patterns left by the different breakage methods are not distinctive enough. However, it was possible to determine a fifth of the reference collection was probably broken by a “strong” impact, which likely reflects intentional breakage. Nevertheless, under the current state of knowledge, it is not possible to be certain about the practice of the ritual breakage of Valdivian “Venus” Figurines.Show less
Minimally modified bone tools have been a difficult subject inside the complicated topic of bone tools. Being problematic to recognise and characterise it has been the subject of several...Show moreMinimally modified bone tools have been a difficult subject inside the complicated topic of bone tools. Being problematic to recognise and characterise it has been the subject of several experimental studies. Two studies knapping larger faunal bone remains Mateo-Lomba, Fernández-Marchena, Ollé and Cáceres (2020) and Hind Saadek-Kooros (1972) were taken as references for this paper. This research is an extension of these studies. By knapping Capreolus capreolus metapodials with a hammer stone on an anvil for marrow removal bone fragments are created. 37 Usable fragments were created. These fragments are analysed by looking at possible use and the need for modifications for them to be categorised as certain bone tools. The fragments are compared to two Neolithic excavations, Schipluiden and Hardinxveld-Giessendam De Bruin, and through morphology given possible tool typing. The typing existed out of pins, needles, awls, chisels, blanks, spatulas, blacks, a scraper and a possible hide working tool. Three-quarters still needed modifications before being able to be used as tools. About 24% had the right shape to be used immediately, the biggest amount of these were awls. There were some fragments which also only needed light reshaping before use. This result showed that modifications are not necessarily needed when creating minimally modified bone tools.Show less
Vlaardingen Culture (3400-2500 BC), a regional late Neolithic group in the western Netherlands, is offering a glimpse into the gradual transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic lifestyle,...Show moreVlaardingen Culture (3400-2500 BC), a regional late Neolithic group in the western Netherlands, is offering a glimpse into the gradual transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic lifestyle, since its’ subsistence system can be characterised by the ‘broad spectrum economy’. Hence, Vlaardingen culture people were based on agriculture, but still depending on wild resources. This is also reflected in the types of occupation on different ecological zones, expressed with permanent settlements dominating on the coastal dunes and temporary extraction camps mainly on wetlands. However, a distinction between the two is not always possible for Vlaardingen Culture sites, creating the need for further research. As part of the ‘Putting Life into Late Neolithic Houses’ project, this thesis focused on the study of variabilities in hide-working processes, as an argument in the dialogues about occupation duration in Vlaardingen Culture sites. Based on ethnographic accounts, the working hypothesis suggested that traces of initial stages of hide-working would be dominant in temporary extraction camps, while traces of more time-consuming hide-working activities would be present in permanent settlements. Use-wear analysis was used as a method to study this inter-site variability, while engaging with an experimental approach. The potential variability of use-wear traces generated by different hide-working processes was experimentally studied. The experiments were involving fresh hide scraping as an initial stage in hide-working processes, and the understudied dehairing as a more time-consuming activity, representative of permanent settlements. The results of this experiment demonstrated that if certain conditions are met, traces of dry hide scraping can be differentiated from those of dehairing. The material studied for this thesis is originating from the permanent coastal dune site of Den Haag Steynhof, and is concerning 37 flint scrapers selected from zone 5 of the site. Notably, after use-wear analysis was conducted, matching traces were found between the experimental dehairing scrapers and three of the archaeological scrapers, making Steynhof the first Vlaardingen Culture site to have yielded such traces. Furthermore, the results of the analysis showed that time-consuming hide-working activities, including resharpening, were better represented than initial stages of hide-working in Steynhof. This pattern was also observed on other Vlaardingen Culture permanent settlements, while initial stages were dominating in the temporary extraction camp of Hekelingen III, hence confirming the hypothesis. Consequently, it could be used as an argument to infer about the occupation duration of Vlaardingen Culture sites as well as other Neolithic sites of the region, characterised by the ‘broad spectrum economy’. Hence, this study would be applicable when other arguments for the occupation duration of sites remain inconclusive.Show less
Archaeological material dating to the Bronze Age (BA) suggest that violence was a reoccurring phenomenon in the period. This evidence includes the amass deposition in hoards of the newly emerged...Show moreArchaeological material dating to the Bronze Age (BA) suggest that violence was a reoccurring phenomenon in the period. This evidence includes the amass deposition in hoards of the newly emerged bronze weapons. Brück and Fontijn (2013) have explained this deposition as reflecting the end of the life-path of bronze objects. They assume that object during the BA were imbued with power and meaning through the actions done with the object, i.e. its life-history. Through the interaction between objects and individuals, the social fabric of the BA was formed. This model explains the selective depositions of bronze objects, but it does not delineate why precisely weapons were deposited. While weapons have a clear social context where they could have derived meaning and power from, in the form of combat. Therefore, within this thesis the intended combative use of bronze weapons is explored, in particular bronze spears, in order to examine if a specif type of combat could have imbued bronze weapons with meaning. One of the martial contexts were bronze spears could have been used in is formalised combats. These are combats fought with highly specific norms, called combat capital, for a large array of socio-political and -cultural reasons, named societal capital. Formalised fights act as a safe and controlled manner of violence expression in society. The highly specific combat capital with which the fights are fought, manifest itself in various combat styles that can be linked to a weapon design. The two primary combat styles are binding, whereby contact between the weapons of two fighters is continuously maintained to feel the actions of an opponent, and striking, whereby hitting an opponents weapon is used as the manner for gaining control. Binding is more associated with formalised combat, due to necessity of only combating one opponent, while striking combat can be used in all types of combat. In order to examine for which combat style bronze spears were intended for, a weapons design analysis (WDA) method was used. This method analysis weapons according to five elements, to form a framework of limitations wherein the weapon could have been used. This WDA relies on a different epistemic dimension than conscious deliberation. A knowledge dimensions that is largely unconscious and comes to individuals as feelings and sensations. The WDA thus must be performed by expert-users, that pose a minimum level of skill, i.e. knowledge, in this unconscious dimensions. A WDA, composing of four phenomenological archaeological experiments, was performed by two expert users on two replica bronze spears to gain insight into the combative use of BA spears in general. This WDA concluded, especially based on damage sustained by the spears during the experiments, that bronze spears were probably primarily intended for formalised fights, but with the potential to be used for other martial contexts. Other weapons, however, were probably more optimised 122 for these other types of fights. These formalised fights could have been one of the events wherein the social fabric of Bronze Age society was negotiated, and weapon could procure their power and meaning from.Show less
The ERC-Synergy project Nexus1492: New World Encounters In A Globalising World is, amongst others, investigating past activities in the indigenous Caribbean. One of these activities was the...Show moreThe ERC-Synergy project Nexus1492: New World Encounters In A Globalising World is, amongst others, investigating past activities in the indigenous Caribbean. One of these activities was the production of pottery. This thesis aims to investigate the chaîne opératoire of pre-colonial pottery through studying the 'act' of incising and punctating ceramic vessels during the Late Ceramic Age. This research was executed through the macroscopic analysis and comparison of 35 Meillacoid and Chicoid pottery sherd samples with 44 experimentally manufactured clay-slabs which were incised and punctated with 16 different experimental tools of various material types. The archaeological samples which were studied in this research are all originating from the pre-Columbian archaeological site of El Flaco, Dominican Republic. An inland site situated along the 'Ruta de Colon' and at the southern foothills of the Cordillera Septentrional at a distance of approximately 20km from the ocean. The main focus of this research is the potter's toolkit re-creation, comparing archaeological sample sherds with experimental clay-slabs with the goal of figuring out which tools were probably part of the potter's toolkit for the sake of incising and punctating ceramic vessels and which were not. Other variables like the dryness of clay vessels at the time of incising and punctating and the different possible gestures or motions are also discussed in this study. Preliminary conclusions include, but are not limited to a probably extensive toolkit with many tool-types as possible utensils for producing specific incisions and punctations, with tools from the category plant matter (read small wooden sticks and twigs) as the most important part of this toolkit. Additionally, it seems plausible that incisions and punctations were more likely to be applied to pre-colonial pottery on a relatively plastic clay, as opposed to a drier vessel.Show less
This research deals with the appearance and charasteritics of sleeve attachtment of late medieval chainmail armours from Europe and the Middle-East. The first step of the research was to collect...Show moreThis research deals with the appearance and charasteritics of sleeve attachtment of late medieval chainmail armours from Europe and the Middle-East. The first step of the research was to collect data from historical chainmail armours. For this purpose the chainmail armours in the collection of the National Military Museum in Soest (NL). From this research it could be concluded that 4 distinct types of sleeve attachment were present in the dataset. These types are: a sleeve with a patern that continues in the patern of the body, a sleeve with a pattern that was perpendicular to the patern of the body, a sleeve with a patern continuing in the patern of the body but with an extra rectangle fixed in the armpit and a sleeve with a continuing patern and an extra rectangle in the armpit that is perpendicular to the patern in the sleeve and body.Two of these types of sleeve attachments have an European origin and two types of sleeve attachments have a Middle-Eastern origin. All of these chainmail armours date from the late middle ages (1400-1800). Following this study of the historical material experiments have been done to gain an insight in two important charasteristics of the different typesd of sleeve attachment. The charasteritics that have been examined are freedom of movement and offered protection. To be able to do experiments with these different sleeves two riveted chainmail armours have been constructed, each with two of the four types of different sleeve attachments that appear in the dataset. The first experiment was the freedom of movement experiment. For this experiment the chainmail armour were worn by a testsubject which moved the arms upward. During this movement the maximum unhinderd height the arm could be lifted was documented as the limit of free movement. To be able to accuratly measuring the maximum height the experiment was done in front of a board of numbered lines. The conclusion of this experiment is that there is a major difference in freedom of movement. The sleeve with the patern continuing in the patern of the body and no extra rectangle perfomed best in this experiment. The second experiment was the protection experiment. For this experiment the chainmail armours were put on a dummy made of wood and PU foam. Three different attacks were tested on each sleeve attachment, a stab with the point of a poleaxe in the armpit, a stab with a langes-messer in the armpit and an attack called the half-sword technique, also aimed at the armpit. The conclusion of this experiment is that there is a difference in the protection that the chainmail offers to attacks. The sleeve with the extra rectangle in the armpit that has a patern perpendicular to the patern of the sleeve performed best in this experimentShow less
Nowadays, a variety of methods and techniques are applied to study the use of fire by hominins during the course of prehistory. Recent studies, such as isotopic research on heated bone,...Show moreNowadays, a variety of methods and techniques are applied to study the use of fire by hominins during the course of prehistory. Recent studies, such as isotopic research on heated bone, thermoluminescence studies on heated flint, analysis of micro-charcoal preserved in deep-sea cores, anthropological comparisons and theoretical debates provide new insights into this topic. However, the effects of fire on archaeological substrates are still poorly understood. Hence, the aim of this thesis is to shine light on the changes that occur on limestone as a result of intense heat. In order to analyse the thermal alterations on limestone, an experiment was conducted, which consisted of heating 30 limestone rocks at various temperatures and for different amounts of time.Show less
Research master thesis | Archaeology (research) (MA/MSc)
closed access
During the Bronze Age (BA), in the Southern Netherlands, swords have been systematically surrendered into main rivers for hundreds of years while they are completely absent in coeval burials. Such...Show moreDuring the Bronze Age (BA), in the Southern Netherlands, swords have been systematically surrendered into main rivers for hundreds of years while they are completely absent in coeval burials. Such a sharp pattern was extensively used as a platform to develop hypotheses on the social organization of the communities that performed the rite both at regional and at European level. Being a warrior is considered to have been a threat for the social cohesion of the small and egalitarian BA communities of the Low Countries: therefore, warriorhood must have been a temporary identity which was ‘worn’ when necessary, and then dismissed through the ritual deposition of certain martial paraphernalia (the swords). However, the above-mentioned model does not explain entirely why not all the swords in circulation, but only a few specimens (roughly one every 10 years), were deposited. In order to better understand the selection mechanics, I propose to analyze the possible value-giving events in which these selected items might have been through. Given the nature of the objects, combat constitutes a probable factor governing the selection of these tools for deposition. This thesis aims to illustrate a methodology for the investigation of combat practices, as well as to propose an interpretative framework suitable for gaining insights about socio-cultural aspects drawing upon data on objects’use. Through a combined approach which envisaged an experimental investigation of combat that conciliates realism and control over the variables, and an in-depth analysis of usewear traces on ancient specimens, it was possible to assess the use in combat of archaeological swords. The presence of fresh combat marks together with possible signs of ancient repairs on the swords analyzed suggests that swords have been through more than one cycles of use before being deposited. Furthermore, the incidence and the type of combat traces documented on the archaeological swords analyzed support the thesis of a skillful use of these objects in the past. By interpreting the data through a framework based on practice theory and the related conception of value-through-action, it has been possible to gain alternative perspectives on the phenomenon of deposition and on the social identity of the warrior. Drawing upon the evidence of skillful and continued use of the deposited swords, a multidisciplinary exploration of warriorhood as a practice resulted in a more fixed and socially-structuring picture of this social identity than the one proposed by previous literature providing points of discussion which question the current discourses regarding European Bronze Age society.Show less
By seeking aspects other than symbolism from the archaeological record to recognise fully modern behaviour, further insight can be obtained about human cognition during the Middle Palaeolithic (MP)...Show moreBy seeking aspects other than symbolism from the archaeological record to recognise fully modern behaviour, further insight can be obtained about human cognition during the Middle Palaeolithic (MP) and Middle Stone Age (MSA). Ochre, and possibly beeswax or fat, is believed to have been purposefully used to physically alter the performance of adhesives, and is seen as some of the best evidence of advanced cognition outside of the use of symbolism. However, it is currently unclear how efficient different adhesive recipes are, how much specific ingredients influence the performance, and how difficult it may have been for those ingredients to be combined to maximum effect. I conducted a series of laboratory based lap shear and impact tests, following modern adhesive testing standards, in order to determine the effects of specific ingredients and ingredient ratios. I focused on resin, as it is the only chemically identified MSA adhesive, but also included tar because of its presence in the MP, and gum in order to compare my results with previously conducted experiments. Additives tested include different proportions of ochre and beeswax with resin and gum, and charcoal with tar. Standardised tests have proven to be a fast and accurate method of comparing prehistoric adhesives, and have shown scope for potential performance testing in different simulated environmental conditions, and of different haft types. My results further support the hypothesis that high levels of skill and knowledge were required by early modern humans to consistently produce the most effective compound adhesives.Show less
Tracing the origins of ‘modernity’ in the archaeological record has been an ongoing, and often heavily debated topic of discussion in the field of human origins for quite some time. Cognitive...Show moreTracing the origins of ‘modernity’ in the archaeological record has been an ongoing, and often heavily debated topic of discussion in the field of human origins for quite some time. Cognitive modernity – generally defined as the manifestation of complex language and abstract thought – is often inferred from various perceived innovations in material culture that are believed to indicate behavioral modernity (e.g. parietal art, personal adornment, bone tool technology, hafting technology, etc.). One of the more contentious facets of this debate is the subject of fire production during the time when controlled use of fire appeared to become a requisite component of the hominin technological repertoire: the Middle Palaeolithic. The mere presence of traces of fire on a site is not necessarily indicative that it was kindled by artificial means, however. To determine this, one must seek out the ‘tools of the trade’, which for this period were likely flint ‘strike-a-lights’ forcibly applied to fragments of sulphuric iron (more commonly known as marcasite or pyrite). Unfortunately, definitive examples of these tools are conspicuously absent in the archaeological record during the Middle Palaeolithic. Surprisingly, this trend appears to extend even into the early Upper Palaeolithic when modern human colonizers were pouring into Europe. In fact – contrary to the commonly held belief that modern humans were proficient fire-makers by this time – physical evidence of this technology does not appear with any regularity in the modern human tool kit until the mid- to late Upper Palaeolithic despite very regular use of fire by these peoples. One possible reason for this is simply hominids were obligate fire users (as opposed to producers) through the Middle Palaeolithic into the early Upper Palaeolithic. An alternate scenario advocated in this thesis is that both modern humans and Neandertals from the Middle Palaeolithic onward were likely able to make fire at will, but the tools they used to perform this task have not been recognized as such in the archaeological record. Drawing inspiration from the apparent ‘ad hoc’ nature of Middle Palaeolithic lithic technology, this thesis advocates what is called the ‘expedient strike-a-light’ hypothesis. It contends that early strike-a-lights were not formalized tools used to kindle numerous fires such as those recovered from later time periods. Instead, this study postulates strike-a-lights were either A) fashioned from simple, readymade flakes, utilized for only a short while – perhaps for just a single fire-making episode – and then discarded; or B) tools or small flake cores already on hand were expediently used as strike-a-lights. In this latter scenario, it is likely subsequent retouching of the tool would eliminate and evidence of it having been used to kindle a fire. An experimental usewear-based approach to testing the viability of this hypothesis was employed by analyzing the traces left behind on flint flake tools forcibly applied to a nodular piece of sulphuric iron for short periods of time using a variety of techniques with the express purpose of generating sparks. The findings were then compared with archaeological specimens exhibiting seemingly similar wear patterns identified during a comprehensive, low-magnification examination of the lithic collection recovered from the Last Interglacial (~120 ka) site of Neumark-Nord 2/2 (Germany). More detailed analysis using higher magnification found that none of the segregated specimens exhibited the requisite usewear to be considered possible strike-a-lights. Nevertheless, it is the author’s contention that this initial return of negative evidence in no way diminishes the value of this study. The rich and diverse body of data provided by this study, including detailed descriptions of usewear traces observed on both experimental flint strike-a-lights and the sulphuric iron contact material; supporting archaeological evidence culled together from extant literature; preliminary experimental statistical data concerning strike-a-light efficacy; and the novel methods outlined by the ‘expedient strike-a-light’ hypothesis, all combine to provide a solid foundation for future research seeking to shed light on the origins of man-made fire.Show less
