Evidence of the Matronae can be found all over Europe, with various different names and interpretations, like the Matres, the Iunones and the Matrae. The amount of written sources pertaining to the...Show moreEvidence of the Matronae can be found all over Europe, with various different names and interpretations, like the Matres, the Iunones and the Matrae. The amount of written sources pertaining to the religious manifestations of the Nehalennia and Matronae altars of Germania Inferior is quite limited and encompasses a massive number of altars. Hundreds of these altars have often been found in older, often non-archaeological contexts and have the potential to reveal a lot of information concerning activities and people, but because of their original contexts, such as dredging projects, have not all lived up to that potential. Due to this combination of factors, there are not as many works written on the topic of the Nehalennia- and Matronae altars. With my research I want to use academic knowledge from recent years and modern views regarding religion at the Roman frontier to further investigate these altars as they deserve to be. Within my research I will be discussing both the Matronae and Nehalennia altars as they are so deeply intertwined that one must first understand the Matronae in order to be able to look at Nehalennia. However, the main focus of my research will ultimately be the Nehalennia altars, because the culture surrounding these altars is even less certain than that of the general Matronae.Show less
This thesis aims to reconstruct the dietary patterns of the individuals living in the Roman Limes in Northwestern Europe (Germania inferior) using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes on human bone...Show moreThis thesis aims to reconstruct the dietary patterns of the individuals living in the Roman Limes in Northwestern Europe (Germania inferior) using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes on human bone and dentine collagen. Three sites were analysed: Xanten in Germany, Tongeren in Belgium, and Valkenburg in the Netherlands. This study is one of the first to investigate dietary habits in populations from Roman north-western Europe using stable isotope analysis. In total, sixty-one (n=61) samples were analysed for this purpose, including eleven faunal remains from the Xanten site. The analysis revealed that these three sites were relatively uniform regarding dietary habits, following a primarily terrestrial-based diet with predominantly consumption of C3 plants. Furthermore, based on the results, it is possible that individuals of Xanten and Tongeren consumed marine resources, although in small quantities. The consumption of aquatic resources in Valkenburg is debatable, as only one sample has been analysed, which needs to be more representative. The comparative analysis of the analysed sites was performed with a few sites from north-western Europe from the Iron Age, as well as the Roman province of Britannia and the Mediterranean region. The analysis revealed shifts in diets from the Iron Age to the Roman period, especially in marine resources. The consumption of marine/aquatic foods was not observed during the Iron Age, except in the Netherlands. This seems to have changed in the Roman period. Furthermore, Britannia showed many similarities with Germania Inferior province regarding diet, indicating a relatively uniform diet across these two provinces, although slight differences in the number of animal proteins per site are visible. The Mediterranean region has a high variability based on region. Nevertheless, a similar factor is the consumption of marine sources in both areas, which may be attributed to the Romanisation process. Interestingly, the sites of Xanten and Tongeren display similar dietary patterns to those of Pompeii.Show less
The large amount of Roman face masks and helmets that were found in wet contexts in the Roman province of Germania Inferior suggests intentional deposition. Though accidental loss during a fight or...Show moreThe large amount of Roman face masks and helmets that were found in wet contexts in the Roman province of Germania Inferior suggests intentional deposition. Though accidental loss during a fight or crossing of a river could occur, intentional deposition with ritual purposes seems more likely. This is attested by a peak in votive offerings in rural settlements in the 1st century AD across the Lower Rhine that coincides with a peak of Roman military headgear in wet contexts in the same area. The custom of depositing metalwork as gifts to deities seems to have started in the Bronze Age and was carried over to the Iron Age. The native peoples that lived in Germania Inferior during the final century of this period provided the Roman army with soldiers. It is thought that these auxiliary soldiers practiced the custom of using Roman face masks and helmets as votive offerings, which was then possibly adopted by non-native soldiers of the Roman army. This thesis analyzes these pieces of Roman headgear and their contexts to see if a correlation can be observed between them. Information about 82 face masks and helmets was collected in a database. The items were then described, and possible reasons for their deposition were examined. This showed that almost all of the headgear was deposited near Roman forts, camps, or settlements. This would confirm theories about Roman soldiers votively depositing their equipment at the end of their career, perhaps to thank the gods for their protection, or as a symbolic transition from their life as a soldier to a life as a civilian.Show less
Since July 2021 the Lower Germanic Limes has become UNESCO world heritage, this not only led to more public attention to the north-western part of the Roman Empire but also to more scholarly...Show moreSince July 2021 the Lower Germanic Limes has become UNESCO world heritage, this not only led to more public attention to the north-western part of the Roman Empire but also to more scholarly attention. However, most of the scholarly research on the Roman limes in the Netherlands has been done by archaeologists causing historians to be barely involved in the debate. This thesis therefore aims to contribute to the recent developments and tries to re-examine the Roman past closer to home from a historian’s point of view, to see what the events, processes, causes and reasons were that led up to the creation of the Lower German Limes which eventually also resulted in the consolidation and official incorporation of the region into the province Germania Inferior, by not only looking at the political and military events but also the economic and social aspects.Show less
The temple of Empel was interpreted as a religious cult place were Hercules Magusanus was devoted by the Batavian elite. However, Roman religion was very complex in Germania Inferior where religion...Show moreThe temple of Empel was interpreted as a religious cult place were Hercules Magusanus was devoted by the Batavian elite. However, Roman religion was very complex in Germania Inferior where religion was entangled in multiple part of society. This results in a diversity of deities, rituals, and audience group. The temple of Empel does not fit in the general idea of Roman religion and there is no explanation why the archaeological site in Empel an abnormality in the general idea of Roman religion is. This thesis wants to give an explanation how a local site functioned in the general idea of Roman religion in order to better understand how Roman religion worked. When looking at the religion’s practises in Germania Inferior, no spatial pattern of religion can be seen. This is in line with the general idea of how Roman religion worked. The regional level on the civitas Batavorum is also in line with this general idea of Roman religion: no spatial pattern is detectable. The temple complexes worked in this Batavian civitas in the same way of how Roman religion worked, because multiple deities were found, temple complexes work in a broader perspective than only religion, and there is evidence for interpretatio Romana. The temple of Empel is not different from this general idea. In this temple complex, not only Hercules Magusanus is devoted, but probably also Luna, Mother-Goddess, and Fortuna. Moreover, not only the military Batavian elite devoted here, but also women and ordinary men according to the jewellery. This means that the temple of Empel fits in the general idea of how Roman religion worked and this thesis proves why.Show less
This thesis aims to chronologically reconstruct the official gold supply of a small province at the frontier of the Roman empire: Germania Inferior. For this purpose a dataset of over 1,250 Roman...Show moreThis thesis aims to chronologically reconstruct the official gold supply of a small province at the frontier of the Roman empire: Germania Inferior. For this purpose a dataset of over 1,250 Roman gold coins were analyzed from the Southern Netherlands, Northeastern Belgium and the German state of Nordrhein-Westfalen. The result is a detailed overview of the amount of gold that was available thoughout the Roman period.Show less
